Chinese Written Sources
The first historical information about the Kyrgyz appears in the early Chinese source "Shiji" ("Historical Records," compiled in the 1st century BC) by Sima Qian, where it discusses the expansion of the Xiongnu chanyu Maodun's state borders to the east up to Korea and to the west up to modern Xinjiang, around 201 BC.
The text states: "Later, when (Maodun) conquered the northern territories of the Xiongnu, the Duyishe, Dinlins, Geguney (1), and Xinli, all the noble people and officials of the Xiongnu submitted to him and began to consider the chanyu Maodun wise" (Materials on the History of the Xiongnu. Preface, translation, and notes by V. S. Taskin. Moscow, 1968. p. 41).
Chronologically, the second mention of the Kyrgyz is found in the source "Qian Han Shu" ("History of the Early Han Dynasty," compiled in the 1st century BC) by Ban Gu, which also mentions their subjugation by the Xiongnu chanyu Zhizhi around 48 BC.
The text reads: "Seeing that there were many troops of the Usun, and that his envoy had not returned, Zhizhi advanced, attacked the Usun, and inflicted a defeat upon them. Then in the north, he attacked the Wuzhe, and they submitted to his authority. Following this, (Zhizhi) sent troops westward, defeated the Jiangguney, and in the north forced the Dinlins to surrender. (Thus Zhizhi) annexed three territories to himself. He repeatedly sent troops to attack the Usun and always achieved victory over them. The lands of the Jiangguney were located 7,000 li (2) west of the chanyu's camp and 5,000 li north of the territory of Cheshi (3). There Zhizhi remained to live" (4) (Materials on the History of the Xiongnu... Vol. II. 1973. p. 37).
Collection of Information about the Peoples Who Inhabited Central Asia in Ancient Times. N. Ya. Bichurin. Vol. I, Moscow-Leningrad, 1950
The proposed extracts by N. Ya. Bichurin (1777—1853) from the history of the Tang dynasty (618—907 AD) cover the period from the second to the end of the first century AD. They served as a basis for the study of the history of the Yenisei Kyrgyz in the 9th-10th centuries.
Text: Khakyan'si-Khagas (Kyrgyz). Khagas is the ancient state of Gyan'gung. It lies to the west of Hami, to the north of Kharashar, near the White Mountains (5). Some call this state Gyu'wu and Gye'gu. The inhabitants mixed with the Dinlins. The territory of Khagas once constituted the western limits of the Huns. The Huns elevated the Chinese general Li Ling, who was subjugated by them, to the rank of the western Zhuki prince (7). Subsequently, Zhizhi Shanyu, having conquered Gyan'gung, established his residence here, 7,000 li to the west of the eastern Shanyu's camp and 5,000 li north of Cheshy (3); therefore, the rulers of this land later mistakenly called Khagas Gye'gu and Gye'gyesi. The population extended to several hundred thousand; the standing army was 80,000. Directly to the southeast to the Khoykhus horde (i.e., Uighurs — O. K.) was considered 3,000 li (8), to the south — to the Tanman Mountains (9).
The soil is marshy in summer; in winter there are heavy snows. The inhabitants are generally tall, with red hair, rosy faces, and blue eyes. Black hair was considered a bad sign, and those with brown eyes were considered descendants of Li Ling. There were fewer men than women. Men wore rings in their ears. They are proud and resilient. The brave among them tattoo their arms, and women, upon marriage, tattoo their necks. Both sexes live together, and therefore there is much debauchery. The first month of the year is called Maoshi ai. Ai means month. Three months make a quarter of a year. Years are counted by twelve signs: for example, the year in the sign of Yin is called the year of the tiger. The atmosphere is the coldest; even large rivers freeze halfway.
They sow millet, barley, wheat, and Himalayan barley. They grind flour with hand mills; bread is sown in the third month and harvested in the ninth month (10). Wine is brewed from porridge. There are neither fruit trees nor garden vegetables. The horses are sturdy and tall. The best are those that fight fiercely. There are camels and cows; but more cows and sheep. Wealthy farmers keep several thousand heads of them. Among the animals are tarpan, roe deer, moose, and black-tailed goats. Black-tailed goats resemble the kabarga, but have a large black tail. Among the fish, there is one about seven feet long, smooth and boneless, with a mouth under the nose (11). Among the birds: wild geese and ducks, magpies, and hawks. Among the trees are pine, birch, elm, willow, and fir; the latter are so tall that an arrow shot from a bow does not reach the top.
Gold, iron, and tin are found. In every rain, iron is usually obtained, called jia'sha. They make weapons, which are extremely sharp, and constantly export them to the Tujue (12). In war, they use bows and arrows and banners. Horsemen cover their arms and legs with wooden shields; they also place round shields on their shoulders, which could protect against arrowheads and sabers.
Khagas - The Ancient State of Gyan'gung
The ruler of Khagas is called Ajo; hence he is also referred to as Ajo by others. He has a flag (13) raised. Others are called by the names of generations (14). Sable and lynx furs make rich garments. Ajo wears a sable hat in winter and a hat with a golden rim, with a conical top and a bent bottom in summer. Others wear white felt hats (15). Generally, they like to wear a whetstone on their belts, otherwise known as musat.
The lower classes dress in sheepskin clothing and go without hats. Women wear dresses made of wool and silk fabrics, which they obtain from Anxi (Kucha — O. K.), Beit'xin (16), and Dahya (Fergana — O. K.). Ajo resides near the Black Mountains (17).
His encampment is surrounded by palisades. The house consists of a tent covered with felt and is called Midichzy (18). The chiefs live in small tents. The army is recruited from all generations. The yasachny (tax) is paid with sable and squirrel furs. Officials are divided into six ranks, such as: ministers, chief commanders, managers, clerks, leaders, and dagani. There are seven ministers, three chief commanders, and ten managers. All of them oversee the troops.
There are fifteen clerks; leaders and dagani do not have a fixed number of officials (19). They feed on meat and mare's milk (20). Only Ajo consumes bread (wine). Among musical instruments, they have a flute, a drum, and two unknown ones. Among entertainments, trained camels and lions, vaulting on horses, and tightrope walking are popular. Sacrifices to spirits are made in the fields. There is no specific time for sacrifices. Shamans are called gan (stone).
In marriages, kalym is paid with horses and sheep. The wealthy give one hundred or even a thousand heads. At funerals, they do not scratch their faces; they only wrap the body of the deceased in three layers and weep; then they burn it, and the collected bones are buried after a year. After this, they perform mourning at certain times (21). In winter, they live in houses covered with tree bark. Their writing and language are completely similar to those of the Khoykhus (22). Their laws are very strict. Anyone who causes confusion before a battle, fails to fulfill a diplomatic duty, gives unwise advice to the ruler, or commits theft is sentenced to be beheaded. If a thief has a father, his head is hung around the father's neck, and he must wear it until death. From Ajo's residence to the Khoykhus horde is considered a 40-day camel ride. The envoys traveled from T'ian'de 200 li to the town of Si Shouxiang cheng; then north 300 li to the Gagar's spring; from the spring northwest to the Khoykhus horde is 1500 li.
There are two roads: the eastern and the western. The road from the spring to the north is called eastern. 600 li to the north of the Khoykhus horde flows the Selenga; from Selenga to the northeast are snowy mountains. This land abounds in water and pastures. On the eastern side of the Black Mountains, there is the river Gyan-he (23). They cross it on batak (24). All rivers flow northeast, bypassing Khagas, merge in the north (25), and enter the sea, reaching Muma (the generation of skiing Tujue), where three Tujue aymaks roam: Dubo (26), Milige, Echzhi. Their princes are called Gyejin. They live in houses covered with birch bark. They have many good horses. It is customary to ride on ice on wooden horses. They tie skis to their feet and lean on poles under their arms. With each push, they move a hundred steps forward very quickly. At night, they engage in theft and robbery, and during the day they hide. Khagas catch them and put them to work.
Khagas was a strong state; in area, it equaled the Tujue possessions (27). The Tujue House married their daughters to their elders. To the east, it extended to Guli'gani, to the south to Tibet (28), and to the southwest to Gelolu (29). Previously, the Khagas state depended on the House of Siyen'yan (30), which had its Gye'lifu there for supreme oversight. The Khagas ruler had three ministers, who were Gye'si bei (31), Gyushabo Bei, and Ami bei. They managed all state affairs. The Khagas never had communication with the Central State.
Struggle for Power and Territories
In the twenty-second year of the reign of Zhenguan, upon receiving news that the Tylek generations had submitted to the House of Than, a messenger was sent from Khagas with local products. The elder Silifa Shibokuy Azhang personally came to the Court. Taizong, entertaining him at the table, said to his nobles: "In the past, on the Beiqiao bridge, I beheaded three Tujue who boasted of many merits. Now Silifa at the table seems to have lost his composure." The intoxicated Silifa expressed a desire to hold Hu-ban (32). The emperor renamed his possessions the Gyan-Gung region. Silifa received a military rank and was appointed chief commander in his region, which was subordinate to the governor of Yanzhan. During the reign of Emperor Gaozong (650—683 AD), he visited the Court twice.
During the reign of Jinglong (706—711 AD), local products were presented. Zhongzong summoned the envoy to himself and said: "Your ruling house comes from the same lineage as mine (the Tang dynasty descended from a steppe Turkic lineage), and I distinguish it from other vassals." During the reign of Emperor Xuanzong (713—755 AD), there were four embassies with local products. In the reign of Qianyuan, in 758, the Khoykhus (Uighurs) conquered this state; after this, Khagas embassies could no longer penetrate the Central State.
Subsequently, the northern nomads mistakenly called Khagas Khakyan'si, which in the Khoykhus language means: red-faced, and this word was also mistakenly pronounced as Gyagyas. This state was always in friendly relations with Dashi (Arabs — O. K.), Tufan (Tibet — O. K.), and Gelolu; but the Tufan feared plundering from the Khoykhus when communicating with Khagas; therefore, they took guides from Gelolu. From Dashi, no more than twenty camels passed with patterned silk fabrics; but when it was impossible to fit everything, they spread it over twenty-four camels. Such a caravan was sent once every three years.
The Khagas ruler received from the Khoykhus khan the title of Piz'ye Tung'ye Jin. But as soon as the Khoykhus began to decline, Ajo declared himself khan, his mother, born of Tutsishi (Turgesh — O. K.), as the widowed khan, and his wife, the daughter of Gelu-shehu, as the khan's wife.
The Khoykhus khan sent a minister with troops, but he was unsuccessful. The khan continued the war for twenty years (33). Ajo, intoxicated with victories, said: "Your fate is over. I will soon take your golden horde, place my horse before it, and raise my flag. If you can compete with me, come immediately; if you cannot, then leave quickly." The Khoykhus khan could not continue the war. Finally, his general Gui'lu Mohe led Ajo into the Khoykhus horde. The khan was killed in battle, and his D'ele scattered. Ajo, under personal command, set fire to the khan's encampment and the residence of the princess. The Khoykhus khan usually sat in a golden tent. Ajo took all his treasures and captured Princess Thai-ho; after which he moved his residence to the southern side of the Lao-shan mountains.
Policy of Ajo
Lao-shan is also called Du-man; they lie 15 days of horseback riding from the former Khoykhus encampment (34). As the princess came from the House of Than, Ajo sent a messenger to escort her to the Chinese Court; but the Khoykhus Ugyekan (Wu-jie-kagan — O. K.) intercepted her on the way and killed the messenger. When the Khagas messenger was killed, Ajo, having no opportunity to establish contact with the Chinese Court, sent Zhu Wu He-so with a report about what happened with the princess. Zhu Wu is a nickname, He means brave, so-levy, i.e., a skilled left-handed archer. The envoy arrived in the Chinese capital after three years. Wu-zong, who ascended the throne in 841, was extremely pleased, and the envoy, who came with tribute from such a distant land, was placed above the envoy from the Bohai kingdom (in Manchuria, 712—926 AD); he ordered the official Zhao Fang with a baton to go to the Khagas state to flatter the Court; he instructed the ministers and members of the Hong-lu-si, upon meeting with the envoy, to compile a description of the mountains, rivers, and customs of that country through interpreters. Minister De Yu presented to the sovereign that during the reign of Zhenguan, there were envoys from various distant states; therefore, the official Yan Shi-gu requested that, following the example of the historians of the Zhou dynasty, a chronicle of foreign rulers who presented tribute be compiled. And as the Khagas opened free communication with the Central State, it was necessary to write a portrait of their ruler for future generations.
It was instructed to Hong-lu (-si) to find a painter, and it was also instructed that Ajo, as coming from the same lineage as the ruling House in China, be included in the royal genealogy. At this time, Ugyekhan with the remnants of his people found refuge at the Black Cart (35).
Ajo, taking advantage of the autumn fullness of horses, wanted to capture the khan, which is why he requested troops from the Chinese Court. The emperor ordered that (the troops) be given. During this affair, Li Hao was made the inspector of the borders. The Court, due to the fact that four fortresses (corps) Helun and 18 regions were flooded with eastern and northern foreigners, considered that, fortunately, the Khoykhus had declined, and Tibet was torn apart by internal war; therefore, Wu-zong decided to take advantage of their poor circumstances and sent a letter to Khagas, in which the Khagas ruler was given the title of Zong-in Xyun-wu Chen-min-khan. Wu-zong died (846 AD).
Xuanzong, before ascending the throne, wanted to fulfill the intentions of his predecessor; but some of the nobles presented to him that Khagas is a small lineage that cannot be compared with the House of Than; therefore, this matter was left to the consideration of ministers with other officials of the 4th class and above. The general opinion of the officials was that the Khoykhus were given letters during their power; fortunately, they have now fallen, and to eliminate future troubles, there was no need to strengthen the Khagas. And so this matter was left aside. In the first year of the reign of Da-zhong (847 AD), the Khagas ruler died. The Chinese Court sent an envoy with a letter, by which the new khan was given the title: Ying-wu Chen-min khan. During the reign of Xian-thun (860—873 AD), they visited the Court three times. But Khagas could not completely subjugate the Khoykhus. Subsequently, whether there were embassies and whether letters were given and granted, historians did not keep records.
Comments and Notes
1. In Chinese sources, the term "Kyrgyz" is inscribed with various characters, which sinologists have transcribed in the forms of Khagas, Khagas, Xiajiaysi, Hegesi, Jiejiaysi, Hehe, Hykya (Xia'ge), Gyan'gung (Jiang'gung), Qiliczi, Heliczi, Qiergaisi, and Kiyericzi. According to L. R. Kyzlasov, the first seven (emphasized by us) forms of transcription of the characters are a record of the ethnonym Khakas, while the others are a common reconstruction of the ethnonym Kyrgyz (L. R. Kyzlasov. The Relationship between the Terms Khakas and Kyrgyz... (Peoples of Asia and Africa, No. 4, 1984). Contrary to this assertion, S. E. Yakhontov, relying on the achievements of historical phonetics of the Chinese language, convincingly proved that the form Khagas is a transcription of the word Kyrgyz and cannot be reconstructed as Khakas (S. E. Yakhontov. The Earliest Mentions of the Name "Kyrgyz." (Sov. Ethnography. No. 2. 1970). Indeed, Chinese sources do not provide grounds to oppose the transcriptions of the character in the form of Gyan'gung (Kyrgyz) and Xiajiaysi (Khagas). They contain information either only about Gyan'gung or only about Xiajiaysi, or their identification with each other. However, these terms are never mentioned side by side as words with different meanings. In one Chinese source, Xiajiaysi are even called descendants of Gyan'gung (Kyrgyz) (G. P. Suprunenko. Documents... (Izv. AN Kirg SSR. Vol. 5. Issue I. History. 1963). It should be noted that the term Khakas was first widely used in 1922, when the administrative commission of the Yenisei regional executive committee decided (at the request of the intelligentsia of the Minusinsk basin) to assign the new district the name Khakas, and its local population — Khakas based on N. Bichurin's reading of the characters Xiajiaysi in the forms of Khagas and Khagas.
2. Li is a measure of length, about 1 km.
3. Cheshy is the region of Turfan.
4. According to geographical data, the ancestral home of the Kyrgyz is considered to be northwestern Mongolia, centered around a lake still known as Khirgiz-Nur. In later times, they are mentioned in the Minusinsk basin. The departure of the Kyrgyz from Mongolia beyond the Sayan Mountains is associated with the movement of the Huns northwestward.
5. The White Mountains (Ak-tag) are one of the spurs of the Eastern Tien Shan.
6. Dinlins are the ancient population of Central Asia, including the Minusinsk basin. Some of them were assimilated by the Kyrgyz, who came from northwestern Mongolia.
7. Li Ling was a Chinese general who was captured by the Huns. The Shanyu appointed him as the governor-ruler of the Kyrgyz. Li Ling died in 75 BC.
8. The capital of the Uighur khanate Ordu-Balik (Khar-Balgas in Chinese sources) was located on the left bank of the Orkhon River, 50 km north of Erdeni-Tzu.
9. Tanman corresponds to the ridges of Tannu-Ola, the southern boundary of the Yenisei Kyrgyz possessions until 840 AD.
10. In April and October.
11. Sturgeons.
12. Sold to the Altai Turks (Ashina).
13. Before the gates of Ajo's palace.
14. This means that the Kyrgyz were already divided into clans and tribes at that time.
15. Ajo wore a kunyu (or kisha) hat, while ordinary people wore a kalpak. These headgear were the most common among the Tien Shan Kyrgyz. The form of the kalpak described in this source confirms the ethnogenetic ties between the Yenisei and Tien Shan Kyrgyz.
16. Beit'xin is the city of Beshbalyk, its ruins are located near Urumqi.
17. Qing-shan — Mongolian Altai.
18. N. Bichurin. Midichzy is inclined to be identified with a Muslim mosque. However, the religion of Islam never spread among the peoples of Southern Siberia, including the Yenisei Kyrgyz. It is quite possible that this refers to the tents (Midichzy) of the Kyrgyz in the Eastern Tien Shan, where they accepted Islam and began to bury the deceased according to Muslim rites.
19. This data on the administrative structure of the country refers to the period of the great power of the Yenisei Kyrgyz.
20. This refers to kumys, a favorite drink of many Turkic peoples.
21. That is, they perform memorial services.
22. Here, the Orkhon-Yenisei runic script used by Turkic peoples in the 6th-10th centuries, including the Yenisei Kyrgyz, is referred to.
23. The Chinese word: sword-river, which means the rapid flow of Kema (Bi-Khem and Ka-Khem) — the upper reaches of the Yenisei.
24. A Mongolian word: a ferry vessel made from two hollowed logs.
25. The sources of the Selenga, upon merging into one channel, take a northern direction.
26. Dubo — Tuva.
27. The Tujue possessions refer to the First Turkic Khaganate, the territory of which extended from Manchuria to the Volga.
28. By Tibet, the author of the source refers to Eastern Turkestan, which was ruled by the Tibetans in the 8th century.
29. Gelolu refers to the Karluks, who occupied Semirechye and Central Tien Shan in 766 and formed their khanate with the capital Suwab (now the ruins of Ak-Beshim near Tokmok).
30. Siyen'yan — Sirtardushi.
31. Bei — a feudal title in the countries of the Near and Middle East. The Kyrgyz did not bear this title. In this text, instead of bei, it should read biy; they mainly dealt with judicial matters in the 18th-19th centuries.
32. That is, to be a vassal.
33. Ajo of the Kyrgyz began the war with the Uighurs in 820.
34. Previously, the residence of the Kyrgyz khan was in the Minusinsk basin. After the victory over the Uighurs, he moved his horde to the south of the Tannu-Ola ridge. This is evidenced by Kyrgyz burial mounds on the border of the Great Lakes of Mongolia.
35. Among the Heichzzi tribe, who roamed in the southwestern spurs of the Greater Khingan.