The Opening of the Great Silk Road
“The world is small” — sounds like a truism today. But three thousand years ago, these words would have seemed blasphemous.
The Greeks, Egyptians, Phoenicians, Medes, and Sogdians have been connected by cultural and economic interests since ancient times. They traded. And how they traded! Large trading centers, trade routes, trading fleets, and caravans emerged; crafts developed, money appeared, along with banks, moneylenders, and currency exchangers...
Far to the East, in the valleys of the Huang He and Yangtze rivers, the Chinese were developing crafts and trade. Their merchants penetrated into Southern Siberia, Japan, Indonesia, and Vietnam. Chinese products have been found in burial mounds from the 5th century BC in Altai.
Both trading systems developed in isolation for a long time, knowing nothing of each other. They were separated by the highest ridges of the Tian Shan and Pamir mountains and the deserts of Central Asia. But this could not last forever. In the 2nd century BC, the Chinese traveler Zhang Qian inadvertently overcame this barrier, which facilitated the acquaintance and then the rapprochement of the two worlds. Caravans followed in the wake of Zhang Qian. The Great Silk Road began to function — a trade artery that firmly connected the East and the West.
How did such a significant event occur in the historical fate of many peoples of Asia, Europe, and North Africa?
The Feat of Zhang Qian
One spring moonlit night in 138 BC, the head (lap) of the gate guard of the imperial palace in Chang'an, having carefully checked the posts, settled under a mulberry tree and began to ponder. Why is the world arranged this way?
Some receive only pleasures from life. And not because they deserve them, but simply by right of birth or wealth inherited from their ancestors. And others... Well, take him for example. Tall, strong, and of considerable intellect. But what has he achieved? A minor official. And no prospects. The emperor surrounded himself only with the noble and the rich.
He began to think about Emperor Liu Che. The Son of Heaven — the embodiment of divinity, as Confucius claims. But if you think about it, what kind of god is he? After all, the currently reigning Han dynasty was founded only 68 years ago by a simple village elder, Liu Bang. It was only later that he took the title of Son of Heaven and the name Gaozu...
His thoughts jumped to the beautiful Li — the emperor's wife. Now that is truly a goddess! A mortal woman cannot be so beautiful. It is no wonder that the empress's brother, Li Yan-nian, said of her: “One glance and she will crush a city, a second glance and she will conquer a country.” Since then, she has been nicknamed “The Conqueror of Countries.”
He heard a light cough and footsteps. In the moonlight, a figure in a long shimmering robe appeared.
The startled guard recognized the emperor... A terrifying thought flashed: does the Son of Heaven know his thoughts? His chest grew cold, his heart almost stopped... He jumped up as if stung and heard the calm, majestic voice:
— Are you the one on duty at the Garden Gate of Yangqiu today?
— Yes, Your Majesty.
— Your name is...
— Zhang Qian, Your Majesty. From the Hanzhong region. — Yes, yes, I remember. You are the one I need.
— I am all ears and attention, great sovereign.
— I have looked into your case. The advisors told me that you have made two diplomatic journeys to the southern and western countries...
— Yes, Your Majesty.
— You have been praised. They said you performed excellently... What can you tell me about the northern barbarians, the Great Yuezhi?
— I know little, Your Majesty. After all, I have not been in their camps. So, it is necessary to visit them...
The emperor sat on a bench. He was still quite young, this Son of Heaven. Zhang Qian, his contemporary, stood respectfully beside him. The bright moon shone, nightingales sang in the vast garden, but the head of the gate guard saw and heard none of this: he was listening intently.
The ruler developed a simple thought. The most dangerous enemy of the Middle Kingdom (i.e., China) is the powerful northern barbarians, the Xiongnu (Huns). For more than half a century, their raids have devastated the country. And how much have they endured from them before? The Great Wall does not save. So there is only one way: one must seek strong allies among those same barbarians. Such an ally could be the Great Yuezhi — blood enemies of the Xiongnu. Prisoners told him that decades ago, the Xiongnu defeated the Yuezhi and drove them far to the west. And from the skull of their fallen leader, the shanyu (ruler) of the Xiongnu made a cup from which he drinks at feasts, to remind neighbors of his power.
It is said that the shanyu kept the skull cup in a separate case, so large that a good dozen such vessels could fit inside. This was a transparent hint to neighboring rulers that the shanyu would not mind replenishing his service. Now, in the interests of the empire, it is necessary to find the Yuezhi who have gone somewhere to the west and persuade them to ally with the Middle Kingdom...
— For such an important task, a brave, smart, energetic person is needed, — continued the emperor. — Moreover, one who is resilient and of great physical strength, not afraid of the vicissitudes of distant roads. My officials are burdened with families, positions, and fat... Homebodies! Who do you recommend to me?
Zhang Qian had long since caught his breath. Here it is, that very moment!
Having calmed his excitement, he respectfully replied:
— If my insignificant person were to undertake such a responsible mission, I would... I have a servant, a Xiongnu named Ganfu. A loyal man. He could become a guide and advisor...
— Wonderful! — said the emperor.
Zhang Qian thought he saw a sly glint in the ruler's eyes.
Your soul is sickened by such an ordinary service.
For your abilities, space, breadth are needed! Have you not just dreamed of something like this?...
For a month, Emperor Liu Che (historically known by his posthumous name Wudi) and two dozen of the most noble officials (the emperor's council) meticulously developed a plan for a distant journey, with the status of an embassy and its tasks. And among this brilliant assembly, the simple guard was invariably present. Moreover, several times they even summoned his servant, the steppe man, and questioned him in detail. Ganfu was not at all embarrassed, answering thoroughly and sensibly. He was also included in the embassy and appointed a state salary.
Ah, that Ganfu! Zhang Qian remembered the circumstances under which he appeared. Once, Zhang needed a groom. He packed a bag with one hundred thousand cash (small copper coins with holes in the middle — ten thousand in each bundle), took a porter with him, and went to the Gates at the Bridge, where there was a slave market. Zhang, to be honest, could not stand human humiliation. But what could he do? A groom was needed.
The market was full of slaves from the southern principalities, Korea, the mountain people of Kuenlun, even the “black-headed” (as the Han-era Chinese called themselves), who were sold for debts by creditors. But none of this was right! Finally, at the far end under a mulberry tree, Zhang spotted a group of stocky, crooked-legged slaves in leather caps, long sheepskin coats, and ugly trousers. Each had a wooden yoke around their necks. Several warriors, judging by their clothing and weapons, were from the border guard, guarding them.
Zhang Qian approached. Yes, these are northern barbarians — nomads. You can't find better grooms. He asked the senior warrior:
— Zhuni? Dinglin? Xianbei?
The warrior shook his head and respectfully replied:
— No, sir! These are Hu. They are also called Xiongnu. Just bandits! Believe me, sir, it is not easy to take them. But now they have calmed down. If you need to care for livestock, break in horses...
The captives looked grim, wary, and from beneath their brows. They did not seem very subdued. Their faces were disfigured by scars, tanned by the steppe winds, frost, and sun. Zhang Qian noticed one, quite young, about his age. His features were more pleasant than the others, and his gaze was not hostile — rather, curious. Zhang glanced back at this barbarian several times, then decisively said:
— You are right. I need a groom. Perhaps I will take this one.
Thus, Zhang Qian first met Ganfu. At that time, he could not have imagined that he had acquired not just a devoted servant for life, but a most loyal friend. More than once afterward, Ganfu saved his life! Zhang often thanked the gods for that purchase!
In total, there were more than a hundred people: soldiers, guides, scribes, drivers... They even included one doctor and one astrologer. Zhang Qian was ceremoniously handed the embassy's banner — something like a letter of credence.
The carts drawn by mules were full of gifts for the ruler of the Yuezhi and his officials. They also stocked enough provisions: ahead lay a journey through the desert...
...From the Western Gates of Chang'an, a caravan of a hundred people set out. Armed servants rode ahead. Behind them rode the ambassador himself and his personal bodyguard Ganfu, holding the embassy's banner — a sign of diplomatic dignity in his right hand.
Following were horsemen and carts with diplomatic gifts and provisions.
The blooming banks of the Wei River delighted the eye. Crowds of state slaves with green tattoos around their eyes pulled barges with grain for the capital across the river's surface. Oncoming pedestrians and horsemen respectfully gave way. Everything (including the astrologer) foretold a happy journey.
For the first weeks, they traveled along the ancient road lined with mulberry trees, which stretched from Chang'an to the very border. The journey was easy and cheerful. In the villages along the way, they bought fresh vegetables, and at the postal stations, they obtained hay for the mules. They did not notice how they reached Dunhuang — the border city. Beyond it lay the Xiongnu steppes — semi-deserts. The Great Wall separated the Middle Kingdom from the barbaric world — a grand structure unlike any other on earth. It wound over hills and turned into a barely visible thread on the horizon. Its top resembled a pavement, bordered by battlements: a chariot or 5-6 horsemen could easily and freely race along it. A hymn to human diligence! And it was built over many decades by hundreds of thousands of people. It began in the era of the Warring States — the Zhanguo. The three northern kingdoms — Qin, Zhao, and Yan — were the first to start this construction to protect against the devastating raids of nomads. The Great Wall was completed under the famous Qin Shi Huangdi. Its total length is over 10,000 li (1 li = 0.5 km), and 2 million people were involved in connecting the separate parts into a whole.
Leaving the Great Wall, the caravan moved westward. Here one must keep one's ears open: nomads can appear at any moment. The scouts riding ahead squinted into the distance until their eyes hurt.
On the second day, they noticed a dozen horsemen. However, due to the great distance, they could have been mistaken: perhaps they were wild camels. On the third day, the same thing happened again. And on the fourth day, a cloud of dust rose behind the distant hills, like smoke from a giant bonfire. The cloud moved quickly, closer and closer. People grew anxious and prepared their weapons. Zhang Qian ordered a stop.
The first horsemen emerged from behind the hills. Then more, more, more!... It seemed there would be no end to them. The horsemen came like an avalanche, encircling the caravan in a semicircle.
Zhang Qian estimated: approximately two to two and a half thousand. He tried to remain calm, ordered Ganfu to move forward and raise the embassy's banner higher.
The Xiongnu stopped thirty paces away, as if they had stumbled upon an invisible line: ambassadors are inviolable — such is the law among all tribes and peoples. An elderly Xiongnu in armor made of horn plates rode forward; behind him, they carried another banner, signifying great power.
— I am Luli Anahuang! Who are you?
Zhang Qian, who spoke Xiongnu well, explained.
— An embassy to the Yuezhi? This matter can only be decided by the shanyu! — said Luli. — Follow me!
Immediately, the Xiongnu horsemen closed the ring. And instead of the desired west, the embassy moved north.
The Xiongnu turned out to be not as terrifying up close as they were painted by rumor. These “bloodthirsty demons of the steppe” joked and laughed like ordinary people. At night, they took care of the captives, allowing them to use the supplies taken from China. Nothing was looted, and no one was harmed.
Finally, they were brought to the shanyu's camp. The shanyu turned out to be tall, stout, majestic, like an idol. After listening to Zhang Qian's speech, he thought for a while. Then he replied:
— The Yuezhi are to our north; by what right does the House of Han send an envoy there? If I wanted to send an envoy to Yue (a territory in Southern China), would the House of Han agree to my desire?
There was nothing to argue against, and Zhang Qian remained silent.
— Here is my decision: you have no way forward. But there is no way back either. You will stay here under my supervision. I have spoken.
The gifts that the embassy brought greatly pleased the shanyu. He inspected them, clicking his tongue, and ordered them to be immediately added to his property, giving only a small portion to his courtiers.
To the envoy, he declared:
— The Great Yuezhi are our slaves. And what is meant for a slave belongs to his master.
The provisions were untouched — the Xiongnu were not accustomed to Chinese food. Thanks to this, the members of the embassy fed themselves from their own carts throughout the first winter, not buying anything from the wickedly god-fearing masters.
...And long days of tormenting captivity stretched on. The Chinese, mostly settled townspeople, now roamed together with the Xiongnu yurts across the boundless plains. The emerging state of the Xiongnu covered, at that time, a gigantic space from the Greater Khingan in the east to Balhash in the west. Millions of square kilometers!
There were real deserts like Alashan or Gobi; and green steppes of Orkhon, Selenga, Kerulen with thick juicy grass, and the Dzungar-Altai ridges with bare rocks or, on the contrary, covered with coniferous forests. Hundreds of large and small rivers flowed northward. And this seemed astonishing to the Chinese, in their homeland where all rivers flowed strictly eastward. Thousands of lakes were scattered here, and in their coastal thickets nested countless waterfowl.
A year passed. Another. A third. The captives' freedom was not restricted, but it was clear: they were being closely watched.
In the fourth year, the shanyu offered the envoy to choose a wife. Zhang Qian had to agree. The wife turned out to be quite pretty, with a blush across her cheeks and teeth as white as snow. Only she smelled different from the court beauties: of smoke, mutton, and sheep's wool... In due time, she bore him a son.
After that, Zhang Qian felt that the guard had relaxed its attention. Apparently, they decided where he would go from his wife and son?
...Ten years of Xiongnu captivity had already passed... And on one quiet August night, the embassy fled in full force...
The historian Sima Qian (2nd-1st centuries BC) writes briefly: “After making their way west for several dozen days... they arrived in Dawan” (Fergana).
These words do not reflect the invaluable geographical knowledge that Zhang Qian acquired during those several dozen days. After all, his path inevitably passed through Tian Shan and further — along Lake Issyk-Kul. How the fugitives managed to overcome the highest ridges, the snow-covered passes, where the heart pounds wildly from lack of oxygen! How they managed to cross turbulent rivers, to climb again over the scree on the cliffs without losing direction — and all this in an unfamiliar country — remains a mystery.
One way or another, Zhang Qian and his companions ended up in the land of the Usun. Later, he would describe his impressions as follows: “Usun... This is a nomadic territory, whose inhabitants move with their livestock from place to place. Their customs are similar to those of the Xiongnu. The Usun have several tens of thousands of troops, significant in battles. The Usun were previously under the dependence of the Xiongnu; but when they grew stronger, they gathered their vassals and refused to attend meetings at the Xiongnu court.”
Thus, the Usun did not impress the traveler at all. The same nomads as the Xiongnu. What can you take from them? But to the southwest of the Usun lay a country that shook all of Zhang Qian's ideas about the world.
Archaeological Research of the Bottom of Lake Issyk-Kul