Kyrgyzstan is one of the world’s centers of human emergence, statehood, and civilization. The life of the tribes inhabiting ancient and early Kyrgyzstan, as well as the principles of governance in primitive society, were similar to those in other parts of Eurasia. Distinctive features of communal governance and organization are associated with the people of the Saka, who lived in the territory of Kyrgyzstan from the 6th century BC to the 3rd century AD.
The main unit of social structure among the Saka was the nomadic community, which was primarily composed of families. The gradual emergence of property and social inequality in the social structure created conditions for the disintegration of the communal system and the emergence of tribal nobility. The authority and role of military leaders grew, and consequently, their wealth increased. The burials of the Saka and the archaeological finds discovered within them vividly illustrate the social stratification of Saka society in the 5th century BC.
The second people for whom historical evidence of social governance has survived were the Usuns. The Usun state, located in ancient Kyrgyzstan, was a monarchical state of nomads. The monarch held the title of kyunbag (kyunbiy). This supreme title of power was first granted to the Usun monarch by a representative of the Xiongnu branch of the Modé-shanyu dynasty. Usun rulers, upon receiving the title of kyunbag, became the guardians of the western borders of the Xiongnu state. Even later, during the independence of the Usun state, this title was retained. The linguistic kinship also played a role here (it is not coincidental that in medieval legends about Oguz-kagan, one of his descendants is named Kun-khan). The power of the monarch was limited by a council of elders. Additionally, there was an organized system of governance in the state. The state apparatus included no less than 16,000 officials.
The third, more developed ancient state of Kyrgyzstan was Davan (3rd century BC - 3rd century AD). Its history spanned over a thousand years; however, information about it in written monuments appears only from the 2nd-1st centuries BC. In Chinese chronicles, the kingdom of Davan was referred to as the Ferghana state. Davan resulted from the unification of many small city-states located along riverbanks, as well as oasis states that emerged throughout the mountain valleys. State governance was carried out by local ruling dynasties. At the same time, the rulers of these states were subordinate to the central supreme authority. The supreme ruler had two advisors — viziers, who were mainly chosen from the royal family. The ruler would present state matters to the council of elders, which played an important role in the social and political life of the country and held significant powers. Thus, it was the council of elders that made the decision to depose the ruler and even to sentence him to death. With the participation of the council of elders, wars were declared, peace treaties were concluded, and priorities for international relations were established. Therefore, Davan was characterized by a limited form of monarchy.
The fourth state association related to ancient Kyrgyzstan is the Xiongnu and ancient Kyrgyz. Monuments testify that the Xiongnu were a common ancestor of related Turkic-speaking peoples. It was the Xiongnu who became the founders of the first historical statehood of the Turkic peoples. During the peak of the Xiongnu, the Kyrgyz, Dinlins, Usuns, and other related Xiongnu tribal unions were part of the Xiongnu state, which contributed to these peoples acquiring experience in political and state governance. The first information about the tribes of "Xiongnu" dates back to the late 5th century BC. At that time, they lived in the territory west of Altai. In the 4th-3rd centuries BC, having moved westward and seized territories between Transbaikalia and Ordos, these tribes became known by the name Xiongnu. During this period, the earliest state formation of the Kyrgyz and the very name of the people "Kyrgyz" were closely linked to the history of the Turkic-speaking tribes of the Xiongnu. The end of the 3rd century BC is recorded in history as the time of the emergence of Turkic statehood.
The Xiongnu were divided into two political groups — the right and left wings. All the leaders and military commanders of the tribes of the right wing lived in territories west of the Shanjun lowland (modern Inner Mongolia and northern Shanxi Province) and bordered on the tribes of the Yuezhi, Di, and Qiang. The leaders and military commanders of the tribes of the left wing inhabited territories east of the Shangu lowland (Hebei Province, Yuzhou District) and bordered on the Huihe and Chaoshan.
This dual (bipartite) system of governance was passed on to the medieval Turkic peoples, including the Kyrgyz, and continued to exist thereafter. Another tradition that originated from the Xiongnu is that the governance of the state was carried out by 24 representatives of the executive power — akims (leaders of tribes and regional rulers). They occupied various hierarchical positions in accordance with established regulations — smart wan, luli wan, senior military commander, senior duwei, senior danhu, and others.
The akims held the title of tumen bashy and had the right to pass their position by inheritance (the next shanyu appointed a person from his clan-tribe to this position).
Starting from the reign of Modé (3rd century BC), the shanyu possessed almost absolute power. He often disregarded the decisions of the council of elders. When the power of the shanyu weakened, the role and significance of the collective governing body, which included the tumen bashy and other representatives of the tribal nobility, increased. The experience of the Xiongnu state, formed by the shanyus in the manner of a limited monarchy, left its mark on the statehood of the Kyrgyz.
In the 3rd century BC, the Xiongnu conquered almost all of Central Asia up to Eastern Turkestan. It was at this time that the ancient Kyrgyz found themselves within the Xiongnu state. In the "Historical Note" (Shiji) by the Chinese historian Sima Qian (145-86 BC), it is stated that in 201 BC, shanyu Modé organized a campaign in the northern and northwestern directions and conquered several independent tribes — the Gegun, Dinlins, and Xiongnu. Scholars have established that the Chinese character that reads "Gegun" (variant — "Gyangun") accurately conveys the word "Kyrgyz." Based on this, academician V. V. Bartold referred to the Kyrgyz as one of the oldest peoples. The possessions of the Kyrgyz formed around the same time as the establishment of the Xiongnu state.
Nomadic peoples created at least five such possessions. From this, one can conclude that the processes of state formation occurred in parallel among all Turkic-speaking peoples, not just the Xiongnu. This is also confirmed by ancient Chinese historical writings and chronicles.