United Kingdom. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
A country in the northwest of Europe on the British Isles. Area - 244,820 thousand km². After the transfer of Hong Kong (Xianggang) to Chinese sovereignty in 1997, 15 dependent territories remain under British control — mostly small islands with a total population of less than 200 thousand people, including Gibraltar in Europe, Anguilla, the Bermuda Islands, the British Virgin Islands, the Cayman Islands, Montserrat, the Turks and Caicos Islands, the Falkland Islands in South America, and some others. The capital is London (with suburbs - 7.1 million), the largest cities are Birmingham (1.2 million), Leeds (800 thousand), Glasgow (700 thousand). The administrative-territorial division includes 4 historical-geographical regions: England (39 counties, 6 metropolitan counties, and a special administrative unit - Greater London), Wales (8 counties), Northern Ireland (26 districts), Scotland (9 regions and an island territory).
The Isle of Man and the Channel Islands are independent administrative units. Population - 60.4 million (2005); including English (81.5%), Scots (9.6%), Irish (2.4%), Welsh (or Cymry 1.9%). The official language is English. The dominant religion is Anglicanism, with Presbyterianism and Catholicism also widespread. The currency is the pound sterling = 100 pence.
It has diplomatic relations with the Russian Federation (established with the USSR on February 2, 1924).
National holiday - Queen's Birthday (1926, the date of the holiday is determined annually by government decision: usually on one of the Saturdays in June).
The United Kingdom is a parliamentary monarchy. There is no constitution in the form of a single fundamental law. Legislative acts adopted by Parliament and judicial precedents have constitutional significance. The head of state is Queen Elizabeth II (since February 6, 1952), who belongs to the Hanoverian (since 1917 Windsor) dynasty of English monarchs, being the 40th British monarch since the Norman conquest of England (1066). The Queen is considered the supreme bearer of executive power, the head of the judicial system, the supreme commander of the armed forces, the secular head of the Anglican Church, and has the formal right to convene Parliament for sessions, dissolve the House of Commons, sanction bills passed by Parliament, and ratify international treaties (however, in practice, all major royal prerogatives are exercised by the Cabinet and Parliament).
The state legislative body is Parliament, consisting of the House of Lords (about 1200 hereditary and life peers, Lords Justices of Appeal, and "spiritual lords" - 2 archbishops and 24 bishops of the Anglican Church - the highest appellate judicial authority) and the House of Commons (an elected body of 659 deputies, elected for 5 years by a majoritarian relative majority through direct and secret voting based on universal suffrage). In the absence of a constitution and under the principle of "parliamentary sovereignty," Parliament is not bound by previous decisions and can repeal acts of constitutional significance. British courts do not have the right to review or annul acts of Parliament and are obliged to apply not provisions arising from the international legal obligations of the United Kingdom, but the norms of parliamentary status.
As a result of the general elections in May 2005, the Labour Party gained a majority in the House of Commons (356 seats); the Conservatives had 198 seats, the Liberal Democrats - 62 seats, and the remaining seats were divided among regional parties (the Democratic Unionist Party of Ulster - 9 seats, the Scottish National Party - 6, Sinn Féin - 5, and others).
The government is formed by the leader of the party that received the majority or the largest number of seats in the House of Commons (since 1997, the Prime Minister has been Tony Blair); it consists of cabinet members, ministers not in the cabinet, and junior ministers (about 100 in total).
Political parties: The Labour Party of Great Britain (LPGB) - formed in 1890 on the basis of the Labour Representation Committee, which united several socialist, labor, and cooperative organizations in Britain. It advocates prioritizing domestic issues such as improving the tax system, reducing unemployment, especially among youth, and enhancing education and healthcare systems. The party is gradually abandoning the "socialist attributes of the past" (in May 1995, the idea of Tony Blair (party leader since 1994) to remove the thesis of prioritizing public ownership from the charter was approved). The main task facing the Labour Party is to shift the party to the right towards the center. In foreign policy, the Labour Party emphasizes the need to strengthen the European security system, but still believes that NATO should remain its foundation, highlighting the need to normalize relations with the EU. The number of individual party members as of late 2005 was over 400 thousand (twice as many as in the early 90s). Trade unions and cooperative organizations are included in the party as collective members.
The Conservative Party (Tory party) - is one of the oldest political parties in the country. It emerged in the late 17th century and represented the interests of the landed aristocracy and the higher clergy of the Anglican Church. According to the latest data, about 100 thousand people consider themselves members of the party. It espouses a philosophy of individualism and free enterprise, decentralization, and privatization of the economy. After the party's defeat in the 1997 elections, its new leader William Hague proposed a new party ideology - "open, democratic, popular conservatism," which adheres to conservative principles and traditions but also takes into account the social changes that occurred in the 1980s and 1990s. In foreign policy, the Conservatives typically adopt a NATO-based approach to addressing most current international issues. The party shares the concept of "nuclear deterrence," advocates for the preservation and modernization of the United Kingdom's nuclear potential, and supports continued membership in NATO and the EU, although there remains a significant divide within the party regarding the extent of the UK's involvement in European integration processes.
The Liberal Democrats (LD) - formed in March 1988 through the merger of the Liberal and Social Democratic parties, which had previously been operating as an alliance since 1981. It represents the interests of small and medium-sized entrepreneurs, part of the intelligentsia, and farmers. The party has about 80 thousand members. The LD's political platform is centrist, often compromising and vague on several issues. In domestic affairs, the LD follows a middle ground between the Labour and Conservative parties, advocating for combating unemployment, prioritizing social issues, and halting further denationalization, but overall betting on a market economy and competition development. The party leader is Charles Kennedy.
About 400 trade unions operate in the UK (about 7.2 million members, 20% less than in 1989, which constitutes about 33% of the male and about 29% of the female self-employed population). The largest trade union federation is the Trades Union Congress (TUC), established in 1868. It includes 74 sectoral trade unions (6.8 million). It traditionally supports and finances the Labour Party. The General Federation of Trade Unions was founded in 1899 and unites 29 sectoral trade unions (215 thousand members). Scotland and Wales have their own trade union federations - the Scottish Trades Union Congress (STUC) and the Welsh Trades Union Congress (WTUC).
The British Isles were conquered in the 5th-6th centuries by the Anglo-Saxons. After the Norman conquest of England in 1066, the process of feudalization was completed, accompanied by the political unification of the country and the centralization of state power. The bourgeois revolution of the 17th century created conditions for the earlier (compared to other European countries) development of capitalism in England. Britain became a leading maritime power, allowing it to seize vast and rich colonies. In 1931, the British Commonwealth of Nations was established (since 1947 - the Commonwealth), which includes 54 countries - the UK and its former dominions and colonies, now independent states (with varying statuses) - Canada, Australia, New Zealand, India, Sri Lanka, Ghana, Malaysia, Nigeria, Cyprus, Sierra Leone, Tanzania, Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda, Jamaica, Kenya, Zambia, Malawi, Malta, Gambia, Singapore, Barbados, Botswana, Guyana, Lesotho, Mauritius, Nauru, Swaziland, Samoa, Tonga, Bangladesh, the Bahamas, Grenada, Papua New Guinea, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, Dominica, Saint Lucia, Kiribati, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Zimbabwe, Vanuatu, Belize, Antigua and Barbuda, Maldives, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Brunei, Pakistan, Namibia, South Africa, Cameroon, Mozambique, Fiji.
The conflict in Northern Ireland (under the 1921 agreement with Ireland, it was left as part of the United Kingdom) began in 1969. The main opposing groups are: on one side, the Irish Republican Army (IRA), advocating for the withdrawal of the English from Northern Ireland, and on the other, organizations of unionist Protestants, advocating for the province's retention as part of the UK. The situation is complicated by religious strife between the Catholic and Protestant populations. In April 1998, the Northern Ireland Peace Agreement was signed in Stormont (a suburb of Belfast). In June 1998, a new Northern Ireland Assembly was established in accordance with the Agreement, in which all major political forces of Northern Ireland participated; the overwhelming majority of votes were received by parties advocating peaceful means of resolution. In October 2003, due to a party-political crisis, the actions of the Irish political bodies were suspended, and direct rule from London was introduced.
In early 2004, London announced the start of work on a "review" of the Stormont Agreements, the main goals of which were to end the activities of illegal armed groups and their actual disarmament, as well as to seek ways to form a coalition government of Protestants and Catholics. In July 2005, the IRA issued a statement ordering all its units to "cease armed struggle against British rule in Northern Ireland." The IRA leadership announced its readiness to carry out the disarmament of militants in a short time.
A serious blow to the peace process was dealt in September 2005 during major riots in Belfast, initiated not by the IRA, as in previous years, but by groups traditionally loyal to the British government. In September 2005, representatives of the independent international commission on disarmament officially announced the completion of the process of "removing IRA weapons from active circulation." Unionists, primarily the Democratic Unionist Party of J. Paisley, reacted with skepticism to this statement. Currently, direct rule from London continues.
The United Kingdom is a permanent member of the UN Security Council (since 1945); a participant in the OSCE and the Council of Europe (since 1949), a member of NATO (since 1949), the EEC (since 1954), the EU (since 1973), the OECD (since 1960), Euratom (since 1973), the Colombo Plan (since 1950).
The United Kingdom is a highly developed industrial power, ranking among the leading countries in the world in terms of industrial production and spending on research and development. A major exporter of capital. GDP: in 2004 - $1.782 trillion; the country's budget in 2004: revenue - $834.9 billion; expenditure - $896.7 billion; national debt - 39.6% of GDP; industrial production growth - 0.9%.
Since the early 1990s, the British economy has been experiencing a continuous phase of growth. The country's GDP in 2004 increased by 5.4% compared to the previous year, reaching £1.183 trillion. A large part of GDP (about 60%) is formed by the service sector, the main driving force of which is financial and business services.
The relatively stable situation in the economy contributes to investment activity in the country. The total volume of accumulated investments amounted to £4.1 trillion (end of 2004). Among the main investors in the British economy are American, Japanese, Canadian, French, and German companies.
The increase in gross investments in the British economy is driven by the growth of private investments in the manufacturing and service sectors. However, investment in the public sector is steadily declining. The volume of industrial production in the UK has recently been increasing. The highest growth rates are characteristic of such sectors as electronics, pharmaceuticals, and instrument manufacturing.
The growth rates of sectors such as aviation, automotive, electrical engineering, chemical, and woodworking industries have decreased slightly in recent years. Traditional sectors for the UK - oil extraction and processing, machine and equipment manufacturing, paper and printing industries - continue to have good development prospects. At the same time, a certain lag has emerged in sectors such as agriculture, textiles, and light industry.
In 2003, electricity production was 395.9 billion kWh; oil extraction - 1.957 million barrels per day; gas - 105 billion m³.
Agriculture in the UK is currently one of the most productive and mechanized in the world. The share of employment in the sector is 2% of total employment in the country. The total area of agricultural land is 18.3 million hectares (76% of all land in the country). For products such as wheat, barley, oats, and pork, production volumes exceed consumption volumes; for products such as potatoes, beef, lamb, wool, sugar, and eggs, production volumes are lower than consumption volumes. More than 500 million tons of cargo pass through British seaports.
The largest trading partners of the UK are Germany, the USA, France, and the Netherlands. EU countries account for over 50% of British exports and imports. The UK is among the top five largest partners of Russia (the trade turnover between the two sides in 2005 amounted to £9.27 billion). In terms of accumulated foreign investments in the Russian economy in 2004, it ranks 5th after the Netherlands, Luxembourg, Cyprus, and Germany.
In 2004, exports amounted to $347.2 billion. The main export items are various types of fuel, chemical industry products, food, and tobacco. The largest export partners are the USA (15.7%), Germany (10.5%), France (9.5%), the Netherlands (6.9%), Belgium (5.6%), Spain (4.4%), Italy (4.4%) - in 2003. In 2004, imports amounted to $439.4 billion. The main import items are industrial goods, machinery, various types of fuel, and food. The largest import partners are Germany (13.5%), the USA (10.2%), France (8.1%), the Netherlands (6.3%), Italy (4.7%) - 2003.
In the monetary sphere, the government continues to place great importance on combating inflation. The average annual inflation rate in 2004 was 1.4%.
In 2004, GDP per capita was $29,600. The average life expectancy for men is 75 years, for women - 80 years.
Unemployment was reduced in 2004 to 4.8% (1.4 million) — the lowest rate since 1975.
The income of an average family per week is £476. The working week is 35-40 hours. Education and healthcare are free (although there is also a private sector). Over 20 million people vacation abroad each year.
Among the largest universities in the UK are the oldest Oxford (founded in 1167) and Cambridge (founded in 1209), as well as London, Edinburgh, and others.
The UK ranks among the leading countries in the world in terms of press saturation. About 65% of English people read national newspapers, 90% read local ones. The circulation of national newspapers is over 15 million copies per week. There are 1400 local and 6.5 thousand periodical publications. The largest publications (by circulation): "News of the World" (Sunday newspaper - 4.4 million copies), "Sun" (daily newspaper - 3.8 million), "Daily Mail" (daily newspaper - 2.1 million), "Mirror" (daily newspaper - 2.3 million). Most of these are tabloid or small-format newspapers. Broadsheet ("serious") newspapers are published in much smaller circulations - "Financial Times" (400 thousand copies), "Times" (700 thousand), "Daily Telegraph" (over 1 million), "Guardian" (400 thousand), "Independent" (250 thousand).
There is no official censorship in the UK; the activities of the media are regulated by a number of legislative acts. In addition, a special commission has been established to consider complaints. Virtually all newspapers are financially independent of political parties and conduct independent editorial policies.
Regular radio broadcasting in the UK has existed since 1922. The leading radio company is the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). Broadcasting is conducted on 3 national radio channels and 5 commercial national channels of the BBC, as well as approximately 250 regional channels. Issues of television and radio broadcasting fall under the competence of the Minister of Culture, Media, and Sport.
Television broadcasting is carried out by the BBC and ITV (3 national and several regional programs). The BBC Television Service (operating since 1936) broadcasts on 2 channels (BBC One covers 99% of the UK population, BBC Two - 94%). On average, each Englishman watches television for 17.5 hours a week. The BBC also conducts international television and radio broadcasting through the BBC World Service (BBC Worldwide).
The largest agencies are the Press Association (specializing in collecting and distributing domestic information, founded in 1868), Reuters (specializing in distributing foreign information, founded in 1851), and United Press International.