INDIA. Republic of India
A country in South Asia, on the Indian subcontinent. Area - 3,287,590 km². Capital - New Delhi (over 13 million, 2003), largest cities (data from 2004): Kolkata (over 16 million), Mumbai (Bombay) (over 15 million), Chennai (Madras) (6 million), Hyderabad (5 million), Bangalore (4.5 million), Ahmedabad (4 million). Administrative-territorial division: 28 states, which are subjects of the federation, as well as the National Capital Territory of Delhi and 6 union territories, considered administrative units under central authority. Population -
1.6 billion (2003) (72% of the population lives in rural areas). Population growth - 1.85% per year.
There are a total of 500 ethnic groups and tribes speaking 1,652 languages and dialects. Four language families are represented in India: Indo-European - 73.4%, Dravidian - 24.5%, Austroasiatic - 1.4%, and Tibeto-Burman - 0.7%. The official language of India, according to the constitution, is Hindi, while English remains a legally established means of interethnic communication.
An appendix to the constitution provides a list of 18 main regional languages officially used in state administration. Religion: 82.6% of the population practice Hinduism and 12.2% - Islam (census 1991, excluding the states of Jammu and Kashmir and Assam), Christians - 2.34%, Sikhs - 1.94%, Buddhists - 0.76%, Jains - 0.4%. The currency unit is the Indian rupee = 100 paise. Since August 1, 1994, the rupee has been convertible for current operations.
India has diplomatic relations with the Russian Federation (established between the USSR and India on April 13, 1947, four months before India's independence). On January 28, 1993, a Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation was signed between the Russian Federation and the Republic of India. The first Russian consulate in India was opened in Bombay in 1900.
National holidays: August 15 - Independence Day (1947) and January 26 - Republic Day (1950).
India is a federal republic. The constitution of 1950 (with subsequent amendments) is in effect. The constitution defines India as a "union of states," which do not have the right to freely exit it. Indian states are large administrative-territorial entities based on the linguistic community of the population. The head of state is the president (since July 2002 - A. P. J. Abdul Kalam), elected for a term of 5 years by an electoral college (elected members of both houses of parliament and members of the legislative assemblies of the states). He is also the supreme commander of the armed forces, has the right to introduce bills and veto passed laws, appoints the prime minister, and, on the recommendation of the latter, the members of the Council of Ministers, and is endowed with a number of other powers in the legislative and judicial spheres. The president acts according to the recommendations of the government. The highest executive power is practically concentrated in the hands of the prime minister - the leader of the parliamentary faction of the party that has the support of the majority in the Lok Sabha (since May 2004 - Manmohan Singh, INC).
The highest legislative body of India is the parliament, consisting of 2 houses: Rajya Sabha - Council of States (250 seats) and Lok Sabha - House of the People (545 seats). The Council of States is intended to represent the interests of the states. Elections to the House of the People are held every 5 years, although extraordinary elections are also possible. The last elections were held in 2004. Elections for the vice president (since August 12, 2002 - Bhairon Singh Shekhawat) are conducted by law every 5 years by an electoral college consisting of deputies from both houses of the Indian parliament through secret ballot. The vice president is ex officio the chairman of the Council of States but is not a member of parliament. 12 members of the Council of States are appointed by the president from among individuals with significant practical experience and extensive knowledge in literature, science, art, and public activities. The rest are elected by a system of proportional representation by elected members of the state legislative bodies for a term of 6 years with rotation every 2 years.
Legislative assemblies of the states are elected by direct vote for a 5-year term and are endowed with basic legislative powers within the competence of the states (administration of justice, local self-government, maintenance of police, healthcare, the entire range of agricultural relations, education, local taxes, etc.). Local government is formed by the chief minister of the state from members of the political party that won the elections to the legislative assembly. The management of the states is built on the same principle as that of the union. It is based on a parliamentary system, where the constitutional head of the state (the governor appointed by the president of the country) acts according to the recommendations of the cabinet of ministers, which is responsible to the elected legislative body of the state. In practice, just as in the central parliament, the real executive power is held by the chief minister of the state, approved by the governor.
The union territories were mainly former non-English colonies (Portuguese and French), which, due to their small size and low population, could not obtain the status of a full-fledged state.
Political parties: the Indian National Congress - founded in 1885. Under the leadership of M. K. Gandhi, J. Nehru, and other prominent political figures, the INC led the struggle of Indians against colonial dependence. It became the main political force conducting nationwide transformations in India. At the same time, a tendency towards the formation of a multi-party system gradually grew in the country. Gradually, a number of political parties are structurally formed and reach a nationwide level, which, as part of the opposition bloc, come to power in 1977-79, 1989-91, and 1996-98. From March 1998 to May 2004, the National Congress was in opposition to the ruling coalition of parties led by the BJP. From 1966 to 1984, the INC was headed by Indira Gandhi (1917-84) and from 1984 to 1991 by her son Rajiv Gandhi (1944-91) (both were killed in terrorist attacks). The current leader of the INC is S. Gandhi (widow of R. Gandhi). It has 148 seats in the House of the People.
Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) - has a total of 134 seats in the House of the People. It was formed in 1980 by a group of members of the former religious-community party Bharatiya Janata Sangh, who broke away from the Janata Party (established by several parties in 1977 on a coalition basis).
The president of the BJP is L. K. Advani.
The left movement is mainly represented by two parties: the Communist Party of India (CPI), established in 1925, has 10 seats in the House of the People, and the Communist Party of India (Marxist) - CPI (M), which split from it in 1964, has 43 seats in the House of the People. The Communist Party has the most influence in West Bengal, Kerala, and Tripura. The General Secretary of the CPI National Council is A. B. Bardhan, and the General Secretary of the CPI (M) Central Committee is Prakash Karat.
The main trade union associations: the Indian National Trade Union Congress - operates under the leadership of the INC; All-India Trade Union Congress - works under the leadership of the CPI; Indian Workers' Union - is influenced by the Janata Dal party (People's Party); Center of Indian Trade Unions - under the influence of the CPI (M); Congress of United Trade Unions - under the influence of several left parties and organizations; Indian Workers' Union - under the influence of the BJP.
India ranks 7th in the world by area and 2nd by population.
India is a country with deep historical and cultural traditions. The first major state formations appeared in the second half of the 1st millennium BC. Indians were the first to learn to cultivate rice, cotton, sugarcane, and raise poultry. India gave the world chess and the decimal system of counting. Achievements of ancient and medieval India in philosophy, literature, and art have become an integral part of world culture.
Since the early 16th century, India has been gradually conquered by European colonizers. For almost 200 years, it was a colony of Great Britain. Major events in the struggle for national liberation included the Sepoy Rebellion of 1857-59, the Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience Movements of 1918-22, 1928-33, and 1942, and the uprising of Indian naval sailors in 1946. In August 1947, India achieved independence, gaining the status of a dominion. In January 1950, it was proclaimed a republic.
The Economy of India
India has been a member of the UN since its inception (1945), one of the founders and leaders of the Non-Aligned Movement. It has initiated several initiatives aimed at stabilizing the global situation, addressing disarmament issues, including the 1988 Action Plan for establishing a nuclear-weapon-free and non-violent world by 2010. The Indian leadership places significant importance on the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC); it has been a member since 1985. Steps are being taken to reduce tensions in Indo-Pakistani relations and to resolve separatism issues in the border states of Punjab, Jammu, and Kashmir. India is part of the Commonwealth, led by Great Britain, and the economic cooperation group - BIMSTEC (with Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Thailand). Since July 2005, it has been an observer at the Shanghai Cooperation Organization.
India has significant natural resources. Coal reserves are estimated at 121.4 billion tons, iron ore at 22.4 billion tons (one of the largest in the world), and there are also bauxite, copper, oil, manganese, and mica.
The economy of India is multi-structured. In agriculture, small farms prevail, employing about 62% of the self-employed population, while in industry, it is less than 20%. Economic backwardness coexists with the latest achievements in global science and technology.
The main sectors of the economy have the following shares in GDP production: agriculture - 22%, industry - 21%, infrastructure and services - 57%. GDP growth rates in 2003-04 were 8.2%. GDP per capita is $520.
The standard of living for approximately 250-300 million people corresponds to the indicators of developed capitalist countries. Unemployment was 9% in 2004.
Production of major types of industrial products in 2004: oil - 33.6 million tons, steel - 36.9 million tons, coal - 354.7 million tons, aluminum - 629 thousand tons, electricity - 558.5 billion kWh. India is the largest producer of mica in the world, the third-largest producer of coal, lignite, and barytes, and holds a leading position in the production of iron ore, bauxite, manganese ore, and aluminum, cotton - 20 million bales (each weighing 170 kg), sugar - 14.5 million tons, tea - 830 thousand tons. India ranks third in textile production and is one of the leading exporters of textile goods to the USA and Europe (exports - $8-10 billion). According to data from 2003/04, India is the largest producer of tea, milk, sugar, the second-largest producer of rice, wheat, tobacco, and the seventh-largest producer of coffee (317 thousand tons). The turnover of the computer programming industry in 2004 was about $20.4 billion, with exports of $15.9 billion.
The state sector plays an important role in the development of the national economy of India. State enterprises account for a significant portion of oil extraction and processing, coal mining, electricity generation, and steel production. The public sector holds leading positions in areas such as defense industry, nuclear energy, railways, aviation and maritime transport, and communications. The private sector predominates in machinery, agriculture, light, food, and medical industries, construction, trade, and road transport.
Agriculture and related sectors contribute the largest share to GDP (Uz). Agriculture employs nearly two-thirds of the workforce in the country. For almost 30 years after gaining independence, India had to import up to 12-15 million tons of grain from the USA. Grain imports ceased at the end of the 1970s. This result was achieved through a well-thought-out program to improve the fertility of arable land, develop high-quality seed material, and provide financial incentives for agricultural production (the so-called "Green Revolution").
Agriculture is characterized by a fairly stable level of production and government grain reserves. The grain harvest in 2004 amounted to over 212 million tons (rice - 87 million tons, wheat - 79 million tons, cereal crops - 32 million tons, legumes - 13 million tons), fruits - 45 million tons; vegetables - 90 million tons. The export of seafood, fruits, and the development of the flower industry opens wide prospects for India.
As part of its financial stabilization policy, India has carried out a phased devaluation of the rupee (the largest - by 23% - in 1991). Inflation rates in the 2003/04 financial year were 4.5%. Since 1991, the government has been implementing a policy of economic liberalization. In regulating the economy, the focus has shifted to the use of market levers and management methods, and the scope of private sector activity has been significantly expanded. There is a corresponding reorientation of investment policy. Foreign capital investments are attracted to accelerate the technical rearmament and modernization of the economy.
Foreign currency reserves (including gold) reached nearly $123 billion in January 2005, compared to a critical level of $1.3 billion in June 1991. Foreign direct investment in the Indian economy in the 2003/04 financial year amounted to $4.7 billion.
India exports mainly agricultural and industrial raw materials, food and textile goods, precious stones and products made from them, machinery and equipment, metal products, software, and pharmaceuticals. India's exports in the 2003/04 financial year reached $63.8 billion, while imports amounted to $78 billion.
The country ranks third in the world in the number of qualified scientific and technical personnel and second in the number of computer programming professionals.
Major trading partners: the USA, Germany, the UK, China, Russia, Belgium, Singapore, Australia.
The external debt at the end of 2004 was about $113.6 billion (95% of which consists of long-term concessional loans).
One significant source of foreign currency inflow into India is the remittances from overseas Indians (annual inflow into the country exceeds $1 billion).
India has achieved significant success in higher education: in 1950, there were 25 universities and 700 colleges, now there are over 170 universities and 7,000 colleges. More than 4 million people study in higher educational institutions. India ranks among the top countries in the world in terms of the number of specialists with higher education. The literacy rate averages over 62%.
In 2003, India had about 56,000 periodicals with a total circulation of over 142 million copies. Indian media are published in 81 languages, with Hindi leading - 3,410, English - 750, Bengali - 461, Marathi - 446, Gujarati - 421, Urdu - 397, Telugu - 186, Tamil - 150, Kannada - 134, and Malayalam - 144. The largest circulation of the press in Hindi is over 61 million copies (43.5% of the total circulation), in English - over 26 million, in Malayalam - over 7 million, and in Urdu - over 7 million.
Among the well-known newspapers in Hindi are "Nav Bharat Times" and "Hindustan," in Urdu - "Nai Duniya" and "Milaap." Major newspapers in English include "Times of India," "Indian Express," "Hindustan Times," "Hindu," and in Bengali - "Ananda Bazar Patrika."
Major magazines in English include publications such as "India Today," "Frontline." The most influential news agencies are "Press Trust of India" (PTI) - a joint-stock company of major Indian newspaper owners, "United News of India" (UNI) - the second-largest and most influential private agency after PTI, and "India Press Agency" (IPA) - an independent private agency. All India Radio ("Akashvani") and All India Television ("Doordarshan") are government-controlled.