People's Republic of China

CHINA. People's Republic of China

A state in Central and East Asia. Area - 9.6 million km². Capital - Beijing (14.6 million), largest cities: Shanghai (17.11 million), Tianjin (10.1 million), Shenyang (6.8 million). Administrative division - 23 provinces, 5 autonomous regions, 4 municipalities (Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin, and Chongqing), and 2 Special Administrative Regions (SAR) - Hong Kong and Macau. Population - over 1.292 billion (excluding the population of Taiwan, SAR Hong Kong, and Macau); 91% are Han Chinese, with 55 other nationalities and ethnic groups (Zhuang, Uighurs, Mongols, Tibetans, Hui, Koreans, etc.). Official language - Chinese. The religion of believing Chinese, especially in rural areas, is a mix of Daoism and Buddhism. Among adherents of other religions are Muslims, Protestants, and Catholics. Currency - yuan = 100 fen.

It has diplomatic relations with the Russian Federation (established with the USSR on October 2, 1949). In December 1992, a Joint Declaration on the principles of relations between the Russian Federation and the PRC was signed.

National holiday - October 1 - Day of the Proclamation of the PRC (1949).

According to the 1982 constitution, the People's Republic of China is a "socialist state under the democratic dictatorship of the people, led by the working class and based on the alliance of workers and peasants."

The highest legislative body of state power is the National People's Congress (NPC). Its permanent body is the Standing Committee (SC) of the NPC. Deputies are elected from provinces, autonomous regions, municipalities, and the People's Liberation Army of China for a term of 5 years through multi-tiered elections (the lower-level people's congress elects deputies to the higher-level; direct elections are held for the lowest-level people's congresses - township level; direct elections with more candidates than seats are used to form committees of rural residents, which are local self-government bodies and are not part of the state power system). In the last NPC elections in 2003, more than 2900 deputies were elected. The NPC elects the head of state - the Chairman of the PRC and his deputy, the Chairman of the SC of the NPC and its members, approves the Premier and the composition of the State Council of the PRC, which is the highest executive body of state power, elects the Chairman of the Central Military Commission (CMC) of the PRC, which oversees all armed forces of the country, and approves its composition.

Since 2003, the Chairman of the PRC has been Hu Jintao, the Chairman of the SC of the NPC has been Wu Bangguo, the Premier of the State Council of the PRC has been Wen Jiabao, and the Chairman of the CMC of the PRC has been Hu Jintao (since 2005). *

The Communist Party of China (CPC) was founded in 1921. Since 1949, it has been the ruling party. The CPC Charter states that the party is guided in its activities by Marxism-Leninism, the ideas of Mao Zedong, and Deng Xiaoping as the quintessence of the party's experience. It has over 60 million members. The General Secretary of the CPC Central Committee is Hu Jintao (since 2002). The governing bodies of the Communist Party of China include the Central Committee, the Politburo of the Central Committee and its Standing Committee, the Secretariat of the Central Committee, the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection, and the Military Commission of the CPC Central Committee (organizationally and in terms of personnel, it is identical to the CMC of the PRC). The printed organs of the CPC Central Committee are the newspaper "People's Daily" and the theoretical journal "Qiu Shi."

Alongside the CPC, there are 8 democratic parties in China: the Revolutionary Committee of the Kuomintang (founded in 1948, over 50,000), the Democratic League of China (1941, more than 130,000), the Association for Democratic National Construction of China (1945, over 70,000), the Association for Promoting Democracy in China (1945, over 60,000), the Workers' and Peasants' Democratic Party of China (1930, over 60,000), the China Justice Party (1925), the September 3 Society (1944), and the League for Democratic Autonomy of Taiwan (1947). These parties unite over 500,000 members.

The All-China Federation of Trade Unions unites over 100 million members.

The CPC, along with democratic parties and social organizations, forms the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC, established in 1949), its central organ being the All-China Committee of the CPPCC. The Chairman of the All-China Committee of the CPPCC is Jia Qinglin. The CPPCC is a form of multi-party cooperation and political consultation under the leadership of the CPC.

China is one of the oldest states in the world, the birthplace of many important discoveries and inventions (paper, gunpowder, printing, compass, seismograph, etc.) made as early as the Middle Ages. In the 19th century, the country became the target of colonial expansion by several imperialist powers (Great Britain, Japan, Germany, the USA, etc.). As a result of military defeats and the conciliatory policy of the Manchu Qing dynasty, which ruled in China from the 17th to the 20th centuries, the country was reduced to a semi-colonial state. A significant event in modern Chinese history was the Xinhai Revolution (1911-13), which overthrew the Manchu monarchy and proclaimed the Republic of China. The provisional president of the republic was Sun Yat-sen. In 1919, China was shaken by the anti-imperialist, anti-feudal "May Fourth Movement," triggered by the reaction to the decision of the Paris Peace Conference to transfer control of the Chinese province of Shandong to Japan and all rights previously held in China by the defeated Germany in World War I.

The Communist Party of China (CPC) in the early years after its founding acted in alliance with the Kuomintang (the ruling party of the Republic of China, founded by Sun Yat-sen). After the death of the latter, his successor Chiang Kai-shek broke the alliance with the CPC and from 1927 began a struggle against it, which escalated into a civil war. The situation in China was complicated by the presence of several militaristic political groups that did not recognize the central government.

The Soviet Union constantly provided support and assistance to the Chinese people in their struggle for freedom and independence. In an address to the Chinese people and the governments of South and North China on July 25, 1919, the Soviet government declared its renunciation of all special rights and privileges that Tsarist Russia had in China. In May 1924, the first Soviet-Chinese agreement on general principles for settling issues between the USSR and the Republic of China was signed in Beijing, establishing diplomatic relations and laying the foundation for the development of friendship and cooperation between the two countries. The USSR maintained diplomatic relations with the Republic of China and simultaneously maintained ties with the CPC through the Comintern. The late 1920s and early 1930s were marked by a number of incidents against Soviet diplomatic missions in China, on the Chinese Eastern Railway (CER, which passed through the territory of the PRC and was managed by the USSR) and on the border with the USSR, organized both by the central government of China and militaristic groups.

During the war against Japanese aggression (1937-45), the alliance between the CPC and the Kuomintang was restored, lasting until the end of the war with Japan. After which the civil war in China resumed. The USSR provided moral and material assistance to the Chinese people in the anti-Japanese struggle. The defeat of the Japanese Kwantung Army by Soviet troops in August 1945, the liberation of Manchuria, the surrender of Japan, and the transfer of captured Japanese weapons to the People's Liberation Army of China (the armed forces of the CPC) created favorable conditions for the victorious completion of the people's democratic revolution led by the CPC. On October 1, 1949, the People's Republic of China was proclaimed (it is a member of the UN).

From 1949 to 1952, the government of the PRC nationalized the property of foreign capital and the large Chinese bourgeoisie, carried out agrarian reform, restored the economy devastated by war, and from 1953 began implementing the first five-year plan for the development of the national economy (1953-57). With the help of the USSR and the countries of Eastern Europe, China fulfilled the first five-year plan, implemented economic transformations in cities and villages, and laid the foundations for industry. In the second half of the 1950s, the leadership of the PRC decided to shift the focus of work from economic activity to ideology and politics. A "struggle against rightist elements" was launched, affecting a significant part of the figures in science and culture, unrealistic economic development indicators were set, a massive collectivization of means of production, livestock, and residential buildings of peasants was conducted, agricultural cooperatives were liquidated, and "people's communes" were formed. Direct losses to the national economy during the so-called "Great Leap Forward" (1958-60) exceeded 100 billion yuan. The process of "adjustment," which had smoothed out the consequences of the voluntarist policies of the late 1950s, was interrupted in 1966 by the decade-long "Cultural Revolution," which caused a crisis in the national economy, disorganized the party, state, and administrative-economic apparatus, and delayed the socio-economic development of the country for almost two decades. The number of victims during the "Cultural Revolution" amounted to about 100 million people.

The 3rd Plenary Session of the CPC Central Committee of the 11th Convocation (December 1978) condemned the "Cultural Revolution," rehabilitated repressed leading workers, and shifted the focus of the party's work to economic construction. The 12th Congress of the CPC (September 1982) criticized the cult of personality of Mao Zedong and the mistakes he made in the last years of his life, adopted a strategy for the modernization of society. According to the Chinese leadership, it will be carried out in three stages: by 2000, the goal was set to increase the gross industrial and agricultural output by four times and achieve an average standard of living for the people (this goal was exceeded); by 2021 (the 100th anniversary of the CPC) - to raise China to the level of a moderately developed country; by 2049 (the 100th anniversary of the PRC) - to transform China into a modern highly developed power. In the early 1980s, deep economic reforms began in the country. In rural areas, a transition to family contracting for land cultivation was implemented, various forms of ownership and types of economy developed, and peasants were returned their homestead plots, granted the right to develop sideline production, and sell products in markets (beyond mandatory state purchases). Since 1984, the pace of reforms noticeably accelerated in cities. Their main elements included expanding the economic independence of enterprises, reducing the scope of directive planning, transitioning to wholesale trade in means of production, reforming the system of prices, labor, wages, and using various forms of ownership (state, collective, private), and actively introducing the achievements of scientific and technological progress. In the foreign economic sphere, an open policy was proclaimed, aimed at expanding ties with foreign countries, attracting foreign capital into the economy, creating special economic zones and open economic areas, and forming an "open coastal strip."

However, the implementation of reform measures was not without complications. At the turn of 1988-89, the socio-economic situation in the country sharply deteriorated, reflected in the June events of 1989 in Tiananmen Square. In conditions of "overheating" of the economy, inflation, rampant capital construction, exacerbation of sectoral disproportions, growth of corruption, and abuses by personnel workers, the 3rd Plenary Session of the CPC Central Committee of the 13th Convocation (September 1988) again took a course towards "regulating the national economy," tightening credit, budget expenditures, monetary emission, temporarily "slowing down" reforms, and increasing state-administrative intervention in the economy.

Since 1992, China has been transitioning to a "socialist market economy" and intensively integrating into the global market. The state sector is the object of reform. With the exception of a small group of the largest, strategically most important enterprises, other state-owned assets are subject to gradual corporatization with the involvement of both domestic and (to a lesser extent) foreign investors. State monopoly is established in a small group of sectors (large energy, rail, pipeline and air transport, banking, defense industry, some branches of metallurgy, and several others). Measures are envisaged to further increase the share of non-state forms of ownership in the national economy, liberalize foreign trade, and improve conditions for foreign investments. The constitution of the PRC guarantees the legal equality of all forms of ownership. Prices for goods and services have been liberalized (except for a narrow group of strategic goods and services, as well as banking rates). Special attention is paid to mobilizing factors for the intensive development of the economy - accelerating scientific and technological progress, energy conservation, etc.

Deep changes are occurring in the social sphere, with state policy gradually being shifted to market principles (introduction of pension and medical insurance with the involvement of workers' own funds, abandonment of free housing distribution, transition of the education system to a paid basis, etc.).

Through these measures, it is planned to double the GDP in the first 10 years of the 21st century compared to 2000 and create a comprehensive system of market economy, and by the middle of the century to largely complete the modernization of the country and shift the economy to an intensive path of development.

A large-scale reform of the state apparatus of the PRC has been carried out, the number of which decreased by half from 1998 to 2001. The number of ministries and state committees was reduced from 40 to 29. Sectoral ministries were practically liquidated, and the role of macroeconomic and macrosocial regulatory agencies was significantly increased. Duplication of functions of executive authorities is eliminated, and the decision-making process is simplified and centralized. Similar transformations are taking place at the regional level. The functions of the State Planning Commission (transformed in 2003 into the State Committee for Development and Reforms) have been fundamentally changed - instead of directive planning, it is to promote the creation of a market mechanism and the corresponding infrastructure. The remaining inviolable political system led by the Communist Party is assigned the role of a mechanism for implementing reforms and a guarantor of socio-political stability.

In March 2003, the 1st session of the 10th National People's Congress (NPC) formed a new leadership of the PRC for the next 5 years. In the field of political reform, steps are planned to further build a rule of law state, expand the powers of representative authorities, reduce the bureaucratic apparatus, conduct alternative elections to representative bodies at the township and county levels, and in some cases governors of provinces are elected from several candidates.

The most important priority during the transformations remains the preservation of social stability. The main factors capable of destabilizing the socio-political situation in China are corruption in the party-state apparatus, crime, the dire situation of workers in many state-owned enterprises, excessive property stratification, the growing gap in development levels between the interior and the most prosperous coastal regions, separatism in national areas, primarily in the Xinjiang Uighur and Tibetan autonomous regions.

The situation in the national economy remains generally stable. China is one of the most dynamically developing countries and in recent years has accounted for up to 1/3 of global economic growth. In the past 25 years, China's GDP has increased annually by 9.4% and rose from $147 billion in 1978 to $1.65 trillion in 2004. (Statistical data on the Chinese economy are provided without taking into account Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan.)

Industry

In 2004, the volume of industrial production amounted to $758.5 billion (6.28 trillion yuan), which is 11.5% higher than the previous year and accounts for about 46% of the country's GDP. Claiming the status of a new "world factory," China, in cooperation with major TNCs, seeks to master industrial production of virtually all types of products. In particular, in the 1990s, there was a sharp increase in automobile production, which rose from 1.45 million units in 1995 to 3.25 million in 2002. In 2003, production and sales of automobiles reached record levels - 4.44 and 4.37 million units, respectively.

The rapid development of industrial production is one of the main reasons for China's growing dependence on energy imports. In 2004, crude oil imports amounted to 122.72 million tons (an increase of 34.8% compared to 2003), and oil products - 37.8 million tons.

The total volume of agricultural production in 2004 increased by 6.3% and reached $250 billion (2.07 trillion yuan), accounting for no less than 15% of GDP. Grain harvest in 2004 increased by 38.8 million tons and reached 469.5 million tons (430.7 million tons in 2003); cotton harvest - 6.3 million tons, meat production - 72.6 million tons.

External trade has gained particular importance, especially since the mid-1990s. In 2004, the PRC became the 3rd largest trading power in the world (after the USA and Germany) with a volume of export-import operations of $1.15 trillion.

China's largest trading partner is Japan, followed by the USA, South Korea, and EU countries. In recent years, the pace of trade and economic cooperation between Russia and China has shown a strong positive dynamic. In 2004, the highest level of bilateral trade turnover in the entire history of Soviet and Russian-Chinese trade was achieved, with its volume increasing by 35% to $21.2 billion. By the end of 2004, Russia became the 9th largest trading partner of China. Its share in China's total foreign trade turnover has fluctuated around 1.8-1.9% for several years.

Despite the risks associated with further opening various sectors of the Chinese economy to foreign capital after the country's accession to the WTO (November 2001), its financial system remains stable. Inflation remains low (in 2004, prices rose by only 3.9%). China's foreign exchange reserves increased by $206.7 billion in 2004, exceeding $609.9 billion. By the end of 2004, China's external debt amounted to $228.6 billion, with 55% of this amount accounted for long- and medium-term liabilities.

China widely cooperates with foreign capital, attracting it with political stability, a high degree of openness of the economy, a favorable investment climate, cheap labor, and a sufficiently developed industrial potential. In 2004, 43,664 new enterprises were established in China using foreign direct investments (an increase of 6.3% compared to 2003), with a total volume of $60.6 billion (an increase of 13.3%). Since the beginning of the reforms, a total of $560 billion has been utilized, and the total number of enterprises with foreign capital participation has already exceeded 230,000.

At the same time, serious problems persist in China's economy, the most difficult of which the government considers to be the immense pressure of unemployment, excessive investments, and insufficient domestic consumption, the imperfection of the economic structure, and the low efficiency of economic development as a whole, as well as the increasing manifestation of resource and environmental constraints on economic growth. The high rates of development of the national economy are supported, among other things, by extensive factors, and the losses of state-owned enterprises continue to grow. Anti-inflation measures have led to an acceleration of unemployment growth (over 8 million, or 4.2% of the total number of employed in cities with a planned rate of 3%).

In 1996, 98.9% of school-age children attended school. There are over 1,000 higher educational institutions in China, with leading ones being Peking University, Tsinghua University, Fudan University (in Shanghai), Nankai University in Tianjin, the University of Science and Technology of China, Nanjing University, and others.

The main daily newspapers in China (there are about 700 in total): "People's Daily" (5 million copies), "Guangming Daily" (dedicated to issues of science, education, culture, 6 million), "Jiefangjun Bao" (organ of the Central Military Commission, 800 thousand), "Economic Daily" (economic newspaper, 1.6 million). There are 2 information agencies in the PRC: "Xinhua" (All-China State Information Center) and "Zhongguo Xinwen She," aimed at the overseas Chinese diaspora.

In China, there are more than 1,200 radio stations and about 900 television centers, approximately 1,300 transmitting relay stations. The main broadcasting centers are the Central People's Radio Station and China Central Television.

Special Administrative Region of Hong Kong - former British dependent territory.

Includes Hong Kong Island, the Kowloon Peninsula up to the Sham Chun River, as well as 235 adjacent islands. Area - 2,933 km², including land - 1,103 km², marine area - 1,830 km². Administrative center - Hong Kong (1.5 million), consisting of 2 districts located on Hong Kong Island and the southern tip of the Kowloon Peninsula. Since the mid-1970s, 8 urban-type settlements, the so-called "new towns" (2.3 million), have formed. Population - 6.84 million, mainly Chinese (94%).

The territory of Hong Kong became part of the Chinese state in the late 3rd century BC, but only in the 11th century did agricultural settlements of Chinese form here. By the time the English arrived in this area, there were more than 3,500 peasants living in a couple of dozen villages and about 2,000 fishermen inhabiting the harbor on their boats. In 1841, a British settlement was established here. Subsequently, England forcibly claimed rights to this territory.

As a result of the Anglo-Chinese War of 1840-42 (the "First Opium War"), the island of Hong Kong occupied by the British was ceded to Great Britain in "perpetual ownership" by the Treaty of Nanking in 1842. After the Anglo-Chinese War of 1856-60 (the "Second Opium War"), the southern tip of the Kowloon Peninsula and Stonecutter Island were ceded to China (the Beijing Convention of 1860). According to the Beijing Convention of 1898, the remaining part of the Kowloon Peninsula and adjacent islands (the so-called "New Territories") were leased to Great Britain for 99 years.

The history of Hong Kong as a bastion of European trade with China has developed under the direct influence of events occurring in China itself, as well as being the result of a complex system of relationships between the European minority and the Chinese majority of the territory's inhabitants: in 1851, out of 33,000 residents, 31,500 were Chinese; in 1931, out of 880,000, 860,000 were Chinese. During World War II, the territory was occupied by the Japanese (December 25, 1941), and on August 30, 1945, it was again occupied by the British.

After the establishment of the PRC (1949), the Chinese government, not recognizing the colonial status of Hong Kong, regarded it as "a territory taken from China."

In 1982, negotiations began between representatives of the Chinese and British authorities regarding Hong Kong, and in 1984, the Sino-British Joint Declaration was signed, according to which on July 1, 1997, Hong Kong was returned under the sovereignty of China as a Special Administrative Region (in accordance with the Chinese concept of "one country, two systems"). In 1990, the NPC adopted the Basic Law of the Special Administrative Region of Hong Kong of the PRC. On December 28, 1995, the Preparatory Committee for Hong Kong was established, tasked with preparing the territory for transition under the jurisdiction of the PRC. Until 1997, Hong Kong was governed by the British governor - the representative of the queen.

On July 1, 1997, the ceremony of the official transfer of Hong Kong to the jurisdiction of China took place. According to Sino-British agreements, the SAR of Hong Kong was granted a high degree of self-government by China. It was given the right to conduct its own administrative management, legislative and judicial activities, as well as to conduct independent immigration and tax policies. The only issues outside the competence of local authorities are foreign policy and defense, which are the responsibility of Beijing. According to the Basic Law (mini-constitution) adopted by the NPC in 1990, for the SAR of Hong Kong of the PRC, the immutability of its socio-economic system and "local way of life" is guaranteed for the next 50 years, i.e., until 2047, it retains the status of a free port (port-franco), a separate customs territory, and an international financial center with its own currency and financial system. Taxes go only to the local treasury. China confirmed the validity (localized) of about 140 British laws that previously applied to Hong Kong. The SAR government was granted the right to independently conclude bilateral international agreements with third countries in the fields of economic and cultural cooperation. More than 50 bilateral treaties with third countries concerning the protection of investments, legal assistance, extradition, air traffic, etc., continue to be in effect. More than 200 international conventions in the fields of trade, diplomatic and consular relations, civil aviation, taxation, health protection, human rights, etc., apply to Hong Kong. The territory remains a member of more than 1,000 international organizations (including the IMF, World Bank, ADB, ICAO, UNCTAD, WHO, FAO, Interpol, IAEA). There are 55 consulates and more than 40 honorary consuls in Hong Kong.

The highest official in the SAR is the head of the executive authority. Since March 2005, these duties have been performed by Donald Tsang, who previously held the second most important post of Chief Secretary. He is assisted by an advisory body - the Executive Council.

The role of the parliament in Hong Kong is performed by the Legislative Council, which consists of 60 deputies. The term of office for deputies is 4 years. The last elections took place on September 12, 2004.

The local police (about 20,000) is considered one of the most experienced and effective law enforcement agencies among Asian countries. A garrison of the People's Liberation Army of China is stationed in Hong Kong, consisting of 5,000 servicemen.

Beijing is represented in Hong Kong by the head of the Office for Liaison of the Central People's Government of the PRC, Gao Shijun (formerly one of the party leaders in Guangdong Province, appointed in August 2002), and the head of the Office of the Commissioner of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the PRC in Hong Kong, Yang Wenchang (since August 2003).

The basic sectors of Hong Kong's economy are foreign trade, transportation, finance, insurance, and service exports. The most developed industries are shipbuilding, textiles, clothing, electronics, electrical engineering, and chemicals. The SAR is a world leader in the export of watches, toys, calculators, textiles, and more.

By the end of 2004, 2,511 foreign companies had chosen Hong Kong as their permanent location, with 1,098 of them establishing their regional headquarters here.

The region accounts for 1/5 of China's exports, from which comes 1/3 of all foreign currency income of the PRC and up to 50% of foreign investments in China's economy. Tens of thousands of small and medium-sized firms with Hong Kong capital on the "mainland" employ over 10 million people (in Hong Kong itself, about 4 million are employed).

With the transfer of labor-intensive production from Hong Kong to mainland China, high-tech industries (scientific research and technological development, design and engineering, creation of new models, materials and components, precision instruments and parts, etc.) have developed more. The SAR has the most developed service sector in East Asia, with income from it accounting for over 30% of GDP annually.

External trade has continued to grow rapidly since 1997. The main export flows go to Asian countries, followed by North America and the EU. The share of CIS countries (including the Russian Federation) is negligible. Leading partners, besides the PRC: Japan, the USA, Germany, Taiwan, South Korea, and Singapore.

In 2004, the trade turnover between Russia and Hong Kong approached $1 billion. Russia supplies industrial raw materials and semi-finished products, oil products, aluminum, chemical preparations, precious and semi-precious stones, instruments, metal structures, animal skins, and furs. Watches, optics, computers, telecommunications equipment, clothing and footwear, and toys are imported into Russia.

Hong Kong is home to more than 500 commercial and investment banks from nearly 50 countries. The offshore market (2nd place in Asia after Japan) and syndicated loans, as well as the interbank money market, are highly active. The currency and stock exchanges are among the largest in the world and in Asia, and they also perform a supporting function for corresponding operations in China.

Hong Kong is one of the busiest ports in the world (after the USA and Japan), accounting for 1/4 of the territory's trade. Two international airports also rank among the world's leading in passenger and cargo transport (the latest, Chek Lap Kok, was built in 1998, designed for 35 million passengers and 3 million tons of cargo per year, and with expansion by 2040, it will accommodate 87 million and 9 million respectively). The majority of cargo transport is related to China.

Dozens of daily newspapers and hundreds of periodicals are published in Chinese, English, and other languages (the most well-known are "The Hong Kong Standard," "South China Morning Post"). Leading international news agencies have their representations in Hong Kong, and the territory serves as a regional publishing base for many of the largest international and Asian newspapers and magazines.

Special Administrative Region of Macau

- the Chinese name for the former Portuguese colony of Macau in East Asia, located 40 nautical miles from Hong Kong, on the coast of the South China Sea, at the mouth of the Zhujiang River, includes the Macau Peninsula, the islands of Danzi (Taipa), and Luhuan (Coloane). Returned by Portugal to China on December 20, 1999. Area - 17.5 km² (including reclaimed land - 27.3 km²), including the Macau Peninsula - 8.7 km², the island of Danzi - 6.3 km², the island of Luhuan - 7.6 km². Administrative center - Macau (over 200,000). Population - 465.3 thousand; 95% are Chinese, 2% are people of mixed Portuguese-Chinese descent, 2% are Europeans, and the rest are migrants from other Asian countries. Official languages - Portuguese and since June 20, 1989 - Chinese (Putonghua). Religions - Catholicism, Daoism, Buddhism. Currency - pataca = 100 avos.

In ancient times, Macau was called Haocing (Surrounded by Moat Place), and there was the palace of the empress of China. The locals also called it Mate (Mother's Palace), hence the name Macau (in transcription into Western European languages). During the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), it was a trading port and was part of the Xiangshan County (now Zhongshan). The Portuguese landed here in 1553 under the pretext of drying their goods, forcibly settled there, and two years later rented it from the Chinese authorities. In 1557, they established their administration in Macau, in 1849 they captured the entire Macau Peninsula, in 1851 - the island of Danzi, and in 1864 - the island of Luhuan. By the protocol imposed on China on March 26, 1887, and the Treaty of Friendship and Trade of December 1, 1887, Portugal obtained the right to "perpetual administration of Macau." In April 1928, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of China notified Portugal of the termination of the treaty, but the Portuguese authorities did not recognize this. In 1940, Japan occupied Macau. In 1945, after Japan's defeat in World War II, Portugal restored its control over the territory.

After the proclamation of the PRC (1949), its government repeatedly stated that Macau is a territory of China and that previous unequal treaties regarding this territory should be denounced, and it should be returned to the PRC, expressing readiness to resolve this issue through negotiations with Portugal. However, in 1951, Portugal proclaimed Macau its "overseas province," governed by a governor. After the victory of the April Revolution in 1974 in Portugal, a new status for Macau was published in February 1976, granting it broad administrative, economic, and financial autonomy. In 1976, the Legislative Assembly of Macau was established, consisting of 23 members (16 elected, 7 appointed by the governor) and functioning under the chairmanship of the governor.

In 1979, the PRC and Portugal established diplomatic relations, and on April 13, 1987, the Sino-Portuguese Joint Declaration was signed, which provided for the restoration of PRC sovereignty over Macau on December 20, 1999, and guaranteed a status similar to that granted to Hong Kong, with the preservation of the existing socio-economic system and way of life of the population. In accordance with the principle proclaimed by Beijing of "one country, two systems," they will remain unchanged until 2049. Based on Article 31 of the Constitution of the PRC (1982), a Special Administrative Region (SAR) was created in Macau.

In 1988, the Commission for the Development of the Basic Law of the SAR of Macau of the PRC was established. The Commission prepared a draft law, which was adopted at the 1st session of the 8th National People's Congress on March 31, 1993, and came into force on December 20, 1999. Beijing's political presence in Macau is carried out by the Office for Liaison of the Central People's Government of the PRC, the Office of the Commissioner of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the PRC in Macau, and the garrison of the People's Liberation Army.

Macau is a free port (port-franco), a separate customs territory, a financial center, and a major transshipment point for illegal trade in gold and drugs. It is known for its gambling houses, casinos, nightclubs, and racetracks (the gambling business accounts for about 60% of the local gross product). All this attracts a large number of foreign tourists (about 10 million tourists annually, 27% of GDP income, amounting to $9 billion). The textile and garment industry, radio electronics, optics, artificial flowers, toys, ceramics, and food products are well developed. The population is mainly employed in industry and the service sector. The average economic growth rate from 2000 to 2004 was over 8%.

Macau is an associated member of several international organizations, including UNESCO, WTO, ESCAP, IMO, and INTERPOL. The local government is making efforts to expand participation in international economic relations, attract foreign capital, and activate local business. Conditions have been created for the free import and export of currency, and low tax rates have been established. Since 1997, a major international airport has been in operation. Since 1999, Macau has accelerated its integration into the economy of the Zhujiang River basin, which has provided an additional influx of investments and strengthened trade with the rest of China.

The volume of foreign trade in 2004 was $6.3 billion, including exports of $2.81 billion, with a negative balance increasing (666 million dollars). The main trading partners are mainland China, the USA, EU countries, as well as Hong Kong, Taiwan, and South Korea. The main exports are traditional - textiles, clothing, footwear, silk, porcelain, chemical industry products, handicrafts, camphor, gunpowder; imports - raw materials, semi-finished products, fuel, consumer goods.

Macau is one of the largest offshore financial centers in Asia. Currently, there are 23 banks operating in the SAR, the vast majority of which are branches of the largest international banks, 26 insurance companies, and 3 major financial companies. The SAR is largely dependent on mainland China, which supplies food, fresh water, and electricity. China has a trade office, a branch of the People's Bank of China, several other banks in Macau, conducts transit trade through this port, and receives multimillion-dollar revenues from commercial operations, various institutions, and enterprises controlled by the Chinese. On the other hand, Macau is one of the largest foreign capital investors in the PRC.

There is a university. Major newspapers include "Boletim Oficial," "Clarim," "Jornal de Macau." The state broadcasting service is "Radio and Television of Macau."

Taiwan - refers to the island of Taiwan and adjacent islands in the southern part of the East China Sea.

Area - 35,961 km². Administrative center - Taipei (over 2.6 million). Population - 22.7 million (2004); mainly Chinese (97%), as well as descendants of the indigenous people of the island - Gaoshans (1.7%) and others. Official language - Chinese. Main religions: Buddhism (45%), Daoism (33%), Christianity (7%). Currency - new Taiwan dollar.

In ancient times, Taiwan was called Yizhou or Liuchu. The governments of various eras and dynasties of China established administrative bodies on the island and exercised their jurisdiction there. In 1590, Portuguese colonizers captured Taiwan, calling it Formosa ("Beautiful"), and in 1641, they were replaced by Dutch conquerors, who were expelled in 1661. Administratively, Taiwan was initially included in the Chinese province of Fujian, and in 1887 it was separated into an independent province. In 1895, the island was captured by Japan. In 1945, after Japan's defeat in World War II, Taiwan was returned to China, and the Central Government of China restored administrative authority there. In 1949, shortly before the proclamation of the PRC and under the pressure of the communist regime being established on the mainland, the Kuomintang's National Government of the Republic of China, led by Chiang Kai-shek, relocated to the island. In 1950, simultaneously with the beginning of the Korean War, the USA sent its 7th Fleet to the Taiwan Strait, and in 1954, signed a mutual defense treaty with the Taiwanese authorities.

The government of the PRC advocates for the reunification of the country. On January 1, 1979, the PRC and the USA officially established diplomatic relations, with the USA recognizing the government of the PRC as the only legitimate government of China, and Taiwan as an integral part of China, terminating diplomatic relations with the Taiwanese authorities and announcing the cessation of the mutual defense treaty and withdrawal of its troops from Taiwan.

To resolve the Taiwan issue, the government of the PRC proposed the formula - "peaceful reunification and one country - two systems" (one China, coexistence of two systems, a high degree of self-government for Taiwan, peaceful negotiations), and has repeatedly made proposals regarding the development of relations and acceleration of the peaceful reunification process. The possibility of using force is not excluded for the reunification of the country.

In Beijing's view, Taiwan should recognize the government of the PRC and become a special administrative region of China within the framework of a unified state, retaining the right to maintain its socio-economic system. Taipei has not accepted the PRC's formula and proposed its own - "one country - two governments," insisting on discussions between "two equal sovereign partners" exercising effective control over "their respective territories." Political negotiations on the reunification issue, which began in 1992, were interrupted in 1996, and their resumption, scheduled for mid-1998, did not take place.

The Taiwanese authorities officially refer to the island as the "Republic of China" and until recently made claims to represent all of China. Currently, the territory under the control of the "government of the Republic of China" includes the island of Taiwan, the Penghu archipelago, and the islands of Jinmen and Matsu located off the coast of mainland China (in the PRC, this territory is included in the official administrative division as one of the provinces).

According to the current constitution of Taiwan, adopted in 1947, the head of the "state" is the president (since March 2000 - Chen Shui-bian, re-elected for a 4-year term in March 2004). The administration of Taiwan consists of 5 main chambers - yuans: the Legislative Yuan (unicameral parliament), the Executive Yuan (government, headed by Frank Hsieh since January 2005), the Control Yuan (oversight of the executive bodies), the Judicial Yuan (development of new laws and amendments to the constitution), and the Examination Yuan (conducting examinations for civil servants upon entering government institutions and for promotions). The president and the 5 yuans have the same term of office - 4 years.

In the mid-1980s, during the presidency of Chiang Ching-kuo, the son of Chiang Kai-shek, the political system on the island began to be reorganized, with the main points being the abolition of martial law, legalization of opposition parties, and generational change in parliament. President Lee Teng-hui (1988-2000), who succeeded Chiang Ching-kuo, a representative of the indigenous Taiwanese population, continued the reforms. Under him, laws on elections, public organizations, voluntary retirement of elderly members of parliament, and amendments to the constitution aimed at further reforming the political structure were adopted.

On March 18, 2000, the second presidential elections based on universal suffrage were held in Taiwan. The ruling Kuomintang party, which had been in power for many decades, suffered defeat. The Democratic Progressive Party (DPP) led by Chen Shui-bian came to power. On March 20, 2004, in the third presidential elections, Chen Shui-bian won again by a narrow margin (less than 30,000 votes) alongside Vice President Annette Lu (female).

The main political parties are the Democratic Progressive Party (existing since 1986, chairman - Su Tseng-chang, secretary-general - Lee Yi-yang), the Kuomintang (Nationalist Party of China, chairman - Ma Ying-jeou, secretary-general - Lin Feng-cheng), the People First Party (founded on March 31, 2000, founder and chairman - former prominent Kuomintang figure Sun Chuyu, secretary-general - Chung Jung-chi), the Taiwan Solidarity Union (formed in August 2001 under the patronage of former President Lee Teng-hui, advocating for the "Taiwanization" of the island; chairman - Su Ching-chiang), and the New Party (formed in 1993, leader - Yu Mu-min). There are over 80 smaller political parties and groups that do not play a significant role in Taiwan's political life.

As a result of the elections to the Legislative Yuan (December 11, 2004), in the 225-seat parliament, the Democratic Progressive Party has 89 seats, the Kuomintang has 79, the People First Party has 34, the Taiwan Solidarity Union has 12, the Solidarity Union of Independents has 6, the New Party has 1, and independent candidates have 4.

After the end of World War II, Taiwan, maintaining one of the highest economic growth and export rates in the world, has become a relatively powerful administrative entity. It now stands alongside the members of the group of newly industrialized countries, the "little economic dragons" of East Asia (which also include Hong Kong, South Korea, and Singapore), playing an increasingly significant role in the economy of the Asia-Pacific region. In 1991, it joined the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation organization, and in 2001, the World Trade Organization.

In 2004, the island's GDP amounted to $311 billion, with a per capita income level of about $13,500. Foreign exchange reserves increased to $253.6 billion (3rd place in the world). The trend of the 1990s towards reducing unemployment could not be maintained - in recent years it has risen to 4.44%.

Taiwanese people are making targeted efforts to maintain high economic growth rates. In the production of certain types of products, the island consistently occupies leading positions in the world economy - computers, electronic household appliances, clothing, footwear, and sports yachts. Taiwan is also a major exporter of various peripheral equipment, electronic components, furniture, textiles, metallurgical products, chemicals, and precision machinery.

The volume of foreign trade of the territory reached $341.9 billion in 2004 (exports - $174 billion, imports - $167.9 billion). The main trading partners are Japan and the USA. The volume of indirect trade with the PRC is constantly growing and reached $50.7 billion (2004). The total volume of Taiwanese investments in the economy of mainland China is estimated to be between $80 billion and $140 billion.

Overall, Taiwan is in diplomatic isolation from the world community. In 1971, a UN General Assembly session adopted a resolution restoring the legitimate rights of the PRC in the UN and excluding Taiwanese representatives from the UN and all its organs. As a result, Taipei retains only some international positions. It is recognized by 25 countries, including small states in the Caribbean, Central and South America, Africa, and Oceania. The main support for Taiwan's existence continues to be the United States. Washington constantly warns Beijing against the use of force regarding Taiwan, and in the past has repeatedly resorted to preventive measures in response to demonstrations of such force by the PRC. Large-scale sales of American weapons to Taiwan continue, and the island is being directly connected to American military strategy in the Asia-Pacific region.

In relations with Taiwan, the Russian Federation proceeds from the position that the government of the PRC is the only legitimate government representing all of China, and Taiwan is an integral part of Chinese territory. This position is enshrined in the Treaty of Good-Neighborliness, Friendship, and Cooperation between the Russian Federation and the People's Republic of China dated July 16, 2001, as well as in a number of bilateral declarations and communiqués.

Russia does not maintain official intergovernmental relations and contacts with Taiwan. Trade, economic, scientific, technical, cultural, and other ties between the parties are conducted on an unofficial basis. The volume of Russian-Taiwanese trade turnover in 2004 was $2.9 billion (compared to $1.2 billion in 1996) with a positive balance for Russia of over $2 billion. The main components of Russian exports to Taiwan are metals and raw materials (including iron ore, timber, etc.); while Russia imports computers and accessories, electronics, and consumer goods. Maritime communication is maintained, and negotiations are underway to conclude an agreement on air communication.

Since 1993, a representative office of the Taipei-Moscow Coordination Commission for Economic and Cultural Cooperation has been operating in Moscow. A similar representative office of the Moscow-Taipei Coordination Commission was opened in Taipei in December 1996.