History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

The Cult of Female Fertility

Findings in the Tombs of Kurkata and Tashravata Findings of items with female characteristics in Ustrushana and Fergana are not isolated. Several years ago, in mound No. 31 of the Tashravat burial site, located 40-60 km southeast of Kurkata, a pendant depicting genitals was found, cast from Egyptian faience. In the absence of a genital amulet, the so-called "factory" production, which apparently was not accessible to everyone, its role could have been played by cowrie shells or

23.05.2021, 09:39

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

Amulets Associated with Female Fertility

Amulets In ancient times, the connection between symbols was more natural, concrete, and motivated by the living conditions of people. This brings us back to the magical connection of fist-shaped amulets with an intimate female issue. According to elderly women from Leninabad, in the past, some families, especially those where women had difficult childbirths, kept pouches with fist-shaped amulets. These amulets were usually carved from hawthorn with branches that spread out, resembling fingers

13.05.2021, 09:02

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

On the Semantics of Pendants. Part - 2

Finger Counting Some researchers reasonably associate the cult of the hand with the fact that in the past it served as a counting mechanism. In science, this method of counting is referred to as finger counting. In this system, each finger represented a specific unit, which is why ancient traders used multiplication even when dealing with large numbers. According to one medieval author, the hands were covered with a cloth so that those around would not know the final sum of the deal. The great

08.04.2021, 08:43

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

On the Semantics of Pendants. Part - 1

On the Semantics of Pendants. Many archaeologists, when preparing the aforementioned finds for publication, often limit themselves to merely stating the fact of the discovery and providing a superficial description, while these pendants-amulets had a close connection with the complex worldview system of the Iranian and other ethnic groups of Central Asia. It seems that the interest in the function and role of the hand as a tool of creation did not arise immediately. F. Engels, speaking about

12.03.2021, 19:43

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

Fifth Type of Cam Followers

Another type of pendants Finally, there is a fifth type of pendants. However, they are of later origin. In turn, they are divided into two subtypes: 1. Primitive metal claw-shaped pendants, originating from individual monuments in northeastern Kazakhstan, the Khakass-Minusinsk basin, Mingechaur, the Chechen-Ingush ASSR, and several monuments of Ancient Iran. The Minusinsk claw-shaped pendants, named Karasuk ones, were made by stamping or cut from sheet iron or silver. Their sizes range from 6

24.02.2021, 15:55

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

Typology of Knobs - Suspensions

Typology of Knuckles - Pendants. They can be conditionally divided into four types; 1. Knuckles, carved or cast from bronze or gold, with a loop at the end of the elbow or simply with a hole. 2. Knuckles, carved or cast from Egyptian faience with a tubular opening for subsequent attachment to a pointed object, specifically, a non-wooden rod.

17.02.2021, 20:32

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

"Knuckles – Pendants from the Tombs of Kurkat"

On the Semantics of Ancient Images of Human Body Parts from the Kurkat Crypts In the work of A.H. Bernshteyn - a luminary of Central Asian archaeology, the semantics of objects has occupied a significant place in Kyrgyzstan. Over the last fifty years, about three dozen votive finds have been discovered. For example, a mysterious hand amulet was first found in the Kenkol burial ground. Later, similar items were found by Yu.D. Baruzdin during excavations of the Kаra-Bulak and Turatash burial

09.02.2021, 03:00

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

Weapons of the Medieval Nomads of Kyrgyzstan

Sarybulak Spear The set of arrows from the Mongolian period looks significantly different. In addition to the well-known flat asymmetrical diamond-shaped arrows of this period found in Kyrgyzstan, the collection in question includes types of four-sided warheads, diamond-shaped warheads, rectangular warheads, and flat sectoral arrows. Almost all the forms considered have no prototypes among the arrows of the Kankol and Turkic cultures in Kyrgyzstan. However, they were widely spread during the

30.01.2021, 12:00

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

Groups and Types of Arrowheads

Classification of Arrowheads A particular interest is presented by a small collection of medieval weapons, gathered over many years of field research in Kyrgyzstan by I.K. Kozhomberdiev. It consists of six iron arrowheads. Based on their cross-section and the shape of the blade, they can be classified into several groups and types. Group I. Triangular-three-bladed arrowheads. Type I. Elongated triangular. Includes 1 specimen from the Kum-Aryk site in the Chui Valley. The length of the blade is

24.01.2021, 17:51

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

Medieval Weapons from the Territory of Kyrgyzstan

The necessity of expanding the source base of medieval weapons. The medieval history of Kyrgyzstan is rich in events related to the military activity of nomads. Its territory was repeatedly subjected to devastating invasions by nomads during the Middle Ages and became a theater of military operations for nomadic armies. It was part of the changing nomadic states: the Western Turkic and Turkic khanates, the Karluk, Karakhanid, and Kara-Khitan states, and Mongolian uluses. However, almost all

15.01.2021, 17:31

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

The High and Unique Culture of Southwestern Fergana in the 1st Millennium AD.

Culture of Southwestern Fergana In the southwestern foothills of Fergana, a multi-sector economy developed in the first half of the 1st millennium AD, largely due to the natural features of the region. There was an organic connection between the pastoral and agricultural populations, which determined the development of the area. There was a constant exchange of experience and economic skills, which ultimately led to the creation of a complex economy. Agriculture occupied a significant place in

16.10.2020, 16:33

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

Population of Fergana in the First Half of the 1st Millennium AD

Zhan Qian on the Ancient Ferganians Written sources vividly characterize the population of Fergana and neighboring countries. Zhan Qian, who visited Fergana in the 2nd century BC, describes the appearance of the ancient Ferganians as follows: "The inhabitants generally have sunken heads and thick beards" (Bichurin, 1950). A similar description of the Ferganians' appearance is found in later chronicles (Bichurin, 1950). Thus, Chinese chronicles testify to the Europoid nature of

27.09.2020, 22:15

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

The Tashravata Barrows

Tashravata Burial Grounds Materials from Kairagach are of great scientific value, as they help to address a number of historical issues not only of the studied area but also for Fergana as a whole. The findings indicate that in Kairagach we are dealing not with an ordinary settlement, but with a major center that played a significant role in the cultural and spiritual life of the region. While the administrative and economic center was located in Tagoba, Kairagach had the cult center of the

16.09.2020, 15:37

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

The title "Наусы Кайрагача" translates to "The Tales of Kairagach."

Nauses of Kayragach A.M. Belenitsky, analyzing the signs on the Pendzhikent khums, noted their similarity to the dynastic signs on Sogdian coins. He concluded that the signs on the vessels are the marks of their owners. Other signs, which do not have analogies among coin tamgas, also belong to noble individuals. Most of the vessels with signs found in Pendzhikent come from temples. A.M. Belenitsky suggested that the khums with signs containing some offerings were gifts to the temple from

31.08.2020, 11:12

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

Kairagach Complex - the First Monument in Fergana

Kayragach Complex The cult of ancestors was widespread in Central Asia. It is known that there were temples dedicated to the ancestor cult. Such temples are known in the Kan region (Samarkand area) and in the Shi region (Tashkent area). Additionally, every home had an ancestor altar or a special room where ceremonial worship of family ancestors was performed on certain days (Bichurin, 1950; Belenitsky, 1959; Filanovich, 1973). The Kayragach complex is currently the first monument of its kind

16.08.2020, 09:35

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

Excavations in Kayragach

Temple Complex in the Village of Kayragach To the northwest of the village of Beshkent, on the left bank of the river, there is a large burial mound necropolis occupying five sites on a high terrace. Each of these sites contains between 2 to 7 mounds. The most thoroughly studied complex in the area is located in the village of Kayragach. It includes a large settlement, a necropolis of the settlement, and a burial mound necropolis. The settlement occupies a narrow floodplain terrace on the left

29.07.2020, 11:23

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

Ancient Settlement in the Valley of the Khozha-Bakyrgan River

Feature of the Oasis Topography In the narrow mountain valleys of Fergana, the terrain was skillfully utilized for fortification purposes. Settlements were located in such a way that they controlled significant areas of the valley, creating a complex defense system for the oases. A distinctive feature of the oasis topography is the extremely close proximity of settlements and burial sites.

16.07.2020, 16:24

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

Andarkhan Burial Ground

Andarkhan Burial Ground - the first monument of the Akhtam culture in southwestern Fergana. Monuments from the 1st millennium BC in the Fergana region are rare. These are small burial grounds, consisting of 5-10 mounds with stone embankments. In the Tashravat area, we have investigated two burial grounds, where heavily damaged human skeletons were discovered. The burials were made at an ancient horizon. Among the stones in the embankment, small fragments of clay vessels of the Andronovo type

23.06.2020, 12:12

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

Aliens from the Flat Ferghana

The First Settlers Southwestern Fergana is a mountainous area that is part of the Turkestan Range and occupies its northern slopes. The region is divided into several landscape zones. The southern part features a high-altitude zone with alpine relief, while the northern part consists of parallel mountain ridges separated by longitudinal depressions or wide intermountain basins. There are two strips of depressions in the area. The northern strip includes the Tashravat depression. The southern

09.06.2020, 21:36

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

Studies on the Nature of the Relationships between Farmers and Nomads

Questions of Historical Interpretation. Currently, only preliminary conclusions can be made regarding the interpretation of the zoning of the examined monuments. In the preceding period - in the second half of the 1st millennium BC - the territory of Fergana was characterized by uniform burial monuments of the Eilat culture - Aktamsk type (6th-3rd centuries BC). In the next stage, during the Davani period (2nd century BC - 5th century AD), instead of one type, one culture, at least five local

25.05.2020, 22:14

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

Zoning of Excavations in the Fergana Valley

Zoning of Excavations The above-ground stone structures (crypts) were divided by M.E. Voronets (1954) and the author of this text (1954) into crypts - mug-khona and stone boxes (see also the table in Zadneprovsky's work). B.A. Litvinsky (1972), not finding differentiating features, combined all varieties of above-ground structures under the concept of "kurums" - similar to a unified catacomb-subterranean culture. The division of the diverse constructions of kurums is a crucial

16.05.2020, 17:27

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

Varieties of Catacombs in the Isfara Valley

Types of Catacombs In light of the latest data, it is necessary to reconsider the classification of catacomb graves. I believe it is important to focus not so much on the length of the dromos, but on the overall configuration of the structure and its dimensions (morphometric feature) and on the peculiarities of the construction. I have identified 5 main types (see Fig. 2). The Kenkol type - the dromos is narrow and long, positioned perpendicular to the catacomb. It has been found in several

29.04.2020, 20:28

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

Burial Mounds in the Fergana Valley

Questions of Typology. In the Fergana Valley, almost simultaneously during the period of the 2nd century BC to the 5th century AD, burial structures of five main types were in use: 1 - earth graves, 2 - undercuts, 3 - catacomb graves, 4 - above-ground stone crypts (kurums, mug-khona, stone boxes), 5 - above-ground adobe crypts. Let’s start with undercuts. An analysis of the existing classifications of undercut graves by K.F. Smirnov (1972), A.M. Mandelstam (1966, 1975), and N.G. Gorbunova

14.04.2020, 10:49

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

Kurgan Burial Mounds of the Fergana "Nomads"

Kurgan in the vicinity of Samarkand. NOMADS OF ANCIENT FERGANA Currently, significant materials have been accumulated regarding the burial monuments of ancient (classical) Fergana, during the time of the existence of the Davan state (2nd century BC - 5th century AD). The studied burial grounds belong to the nomadic population, which, under the specific physical and geographical conditions of the Fergana Valley, adhered to a peculiar form of vertically-seasonal semi-nomadic economy. To

25.03.2020, 18:19

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

The Connection of Southern Siberia with the Population of the Saka Culture of Tian Shan and Semirechye

The Beginning of the Great Migration of Peoples The Alai Saka from Chala and Sharta show the closest affinity with the Saka of Eastern Kazakhstan and Chirik-Rabad in the Aral Sea region, the population of the late Bronze Age forest-steppe Priobye, and the Bolsherechensk culture, i.e., with series that include low-faced Mongoloids to varying degrees. In the series of Eastern Kazakhstan Saka, there are both Europoid and Mongoloid skulls, and if they are separated, they will occupy a more defined

16.03.2020, 07:35

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

22 Signs of the Sakas of Tian Shan

Identification of Tian Shan Saka by Found Skulls Female skulls of the Tian Shan Saka are brachycranic, medium-sized, and have a moderately sloping forehead. The main height-width measurements of the facial part, both in absolute and relative terms, fall into the medium category. The face is strongly flattened in the upper part and moderately so in the nasal area. The vertical profile has an overall orthognathic angle, while the alveolar part is mesognathic. The Flower index is average, the

05.03.2020, 21:05

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

Findings Characterizing the Early Saxon Period

Central Asian Sakas and Central Asia (according to paleoanthropology) Regarding the origin of Saka monuments in the Tian Shan and Semirechye regions, which include not only Northern Kyrgyzstan but also the southeastern areas of Kazakhstan, there are currently two opposing viewpoints. According to one of them, the most widespread, the Saka cultural community formed here based on a local variant of the Andronovo culture of the Bronze Age. However, the actual continuity of such a transition is

17.02.2020, 08:23

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

Excavations in the Territory of the Inner Tian Shan

Plan of the Djapyrik Burial Ground As a result of excavations at the Basqiya II and Keden burial grounds, we have identified another type of mound not noted by L.N. Bernshatam for Tien Shan, but widely spread in other regions of Kyrgyzstan. This is an earthen mound almost devoid of stones on the surface, sometimes reaching heights of up to 1.5-2 m, and in these cases with internal stone linings in one or two layers.

07.02.2020, 16:12

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

Studies of the Kyrgyz Comprehensive Archaeological and Ethnographic Expedition

Renewal of Archaeological Research in the Inner Tian Shan The continuation of A.N. Bernshtein's work in the region is represented by the research of the Kyrgyz Comprehensive Archaeological and Ethnographic Expedition. One of the expedition's teams, led by A.K. Kibiriv, studied the monuments of ancient nomads from 1983 to 1985. The team surveyed all areas of the Inner Tian Shan, including those previously unvisited by archaeologists: Son-Kul, Susamyr, the upper reaches of the Naryn

25.01.2020, 22:07

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

Historical Periodization of the Monuments of Early Nomads of the Tian Shan

NEW ASPECTS IN THE CULTURE OF EARLY NOMADS OF THE TIEN SHAN On the territory of Inner Tien Shan, monuments from all ancient epochs are known to date: Stone Age, Bronze Age, Early Iron Age, and the Medieval period. As is known, the beginning of the documentation of monuments in this region was laid in the second half of the 19th century by the works of Russian scholars and local historians, such as Ch.Ch. Valikhanov, N.A. Severcev, V.V. Bartold, A.M. Fetisov, N.N. Pantusov, and others. They

19.01.2020, 13:47

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

Symbolism and Sign Systems of the Early Medieval Era in Ancient Asia

Ancient Bactrian Glyptics of the Bronze Age The symbolism and sign systems of the early medieval era represent a rich material and are actively researched by specialists. The analysis of artistic reliefs on ossuaries of the Biyanymen type is particularly indicative in this regard. The attributes of the depicted characters and a number of other specific features allow us to convincingly conclude that we are dealing with iconography related to the ufological layer of the Zoroastrian circle,

20.12.2019, 18:23

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

Ideological Block of Ancient Central Asian Civilizations

The Complex Picture of Coexistence and Interweaving of Various Ideological Systems The ideological block of ancient Central Asian civilizations is in close interaction (through a system of direct and reverse connections) with the historical, cultural, and socio-political processes occurring in society. I have expressed the opinion that the widespread adoption of Buddhism in Bactria is linked to the establishment of urban lifestyles as a standard of the era (Masson, 1974). Buddhist ideology,

16.12.2019, 21:07

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

Burials of the Bronze Age from the Kyzyl-Say and Kulan-Say Burial Mounds

Kyzyl-Say and Kulan-Say Burial Mounds in the Talas Valley The systematic study of Bronze Age monuments in Kyrgyzstan is associated with the work of Alexander Natanovich Bernshtein in the late 1930s to early 1960s. He initiated the accumulation of material and its scientific interpretation. Archaeological supervision along the route of the Great Chui Canal in the early 1940s allowed him to make an important historical conclusion that "based on the development of the economy of pastoralist

10.12.2019, 00:19

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

Religious Macrosystem of Ancient Central Asia

Ideological and Practical Policy of Ancient Eastern Society A special attitude towards fire is evident not only in the monumental cult complexes uncovered at Toprak-Kala. There is a clear desire to specifically preserve the ashes of the sacred fire, for which special pits or wells were constructed, filled with such ashes. In smaller sanctuaries, small pits were made to collect the sacred ash. The symbolism and sign systems of the ancient era do not provide a clear solution for defining the

06.12.2019, 12:44

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

Burial Chambers of Bactria

From Ossuary Burials to Corpse Placement For historical reconstructions, burial rites are especially important as they reflect the mass public practice and a special relationship to fire, which can be traced through a whole range of manifestations. In Bactria, there are various types of burial rites. Long known are cemeteries consisting of single burials, where some of the buried had coins in their mouths, clearly following Hellenistic traditions (Tuphona). The movement of nomadic populations

28.11.2019, 18:11

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

Reconstruction of Ancient Ideological Systems of Ancient Central Asia

Archaeological Materials of Central Asia The reconstruction of ancient ideological systems based on material remains is one of the most complex issues in archaeology. Gordon Childe's biting remark that if something is unclear to an archaeologist, they declare it to be cultic is well known. In everyday archaeology, a simplified model of explanation predominates in the procedure: archaeological fact - primitively selected analogy - historical conclusion. The complexity lies in determining

24.11.2019, 05:54

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

The Sphere of Spiritual Production in Ancient Central Asia

IDEOLOGICAL SYSTEMS OF ANCIENT CENTRAL ASIA As is known, ideology represents a set of ideas and views that reflect, in a theoretical and more or less systematized form, people's attitudes towards the surrounding reality and each other, serving to consolidate, change, and develop social relations. Ideology manifests itself in the form of political, religious, ethical, aesthetic, and philosophical views and concepts. Usually, intertwining with one another, they together create a special

19.11.2019, 20:16

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

A.N. BERNSTEIN - Researcher of Ancient Cultures of Central Asia. Part - 3

The Brilliant Insights of the Talented Scholar - Alexander Natanovich Bernstein In his work "Historical and Archaeological Essays on Tian Shan and Pamir-Alai," A.N. Bernstein summarizes the results of all his studies, providing the history of each region - Tian Shan, Alai, Fergana, and Pamir from ancient times to the Middle Ages. By demonstrating the commonality of culture among these areas as cultures of pastoral tribes (except for Fergana), he highlights its local features and

16.11.2019, 03:57

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

A.N. BERNSTEIN - Researcher of Ancient Cultures of Central Asia. Part - 2

A.N. Bernstein's Interest in the Ethnogenesis of Turkic Peoples During the war years, A.N. Bernstein was in Frunze (due to a severe illness he suffered in his youth, he was not drafted into the ranks of the Red Army, where he actively engaged in the history of the Kyrgyz people, participated in the organization of the Kyrgyz branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences, conducted extensive scientific and educational work, and prepared local scientific personnel). The result of this work was an

14.11.2019, 05:34

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

A.N. BERNSTEIN - Researcher of Ancient Cultures of Central Asia. Part - 1

A.N. Bernstein's Interest in the History and Ethnography of Turkic Peoples A.N. Bernstein - an orientalist, archaeologist, and ethnographer - was a scholar of broad profile, vast horizons, and extraordinary determination. He belonged to that brilliant cohort of young scholars whose scientific growth occurred during the formation of Soviet historical science. The turbulent discussions of the 1930s, the fascination with sociological constructs, the categorical nature and dogmatism of

12.11.2019, 22:27

History and archeology of the ancient Tien Shan

Bernshtam A. N. Architectural Monuments of Kyrgyzstan

Bernsham in the Popularization of the Epic "Manas" During the celebration of the glorious anniversary of the 1000th anniversary of the epic "Manas," one cannot help but recall the scholars who made significant contributions to the study of this masterpiece of world culture. Among such scholars is A.N. Bernsham - a prominent archaeologist, historian, and orientalist. Since the early 1930s, A.N. Bernsham has linked his scientific activity with the history and archaeology of

25.09.2019, 19:50