Burial Mounds in the Fergana Valley
Questions of Typology.
In the Fergana Valley, almost simultaneously during the period of the 2nd century BC to the 5th century AD, burial structures of five main types were in use: 1 - earth graves, 2 - undercuts, 3 - catacomb graves, 4 - above-ground stone crypts (kurums, mug-khona, stone boxes), 5 - above-ground adobe crypts. Let’s start with undercuts. An analysis of the existing classifications of undercut graves by K.F. Smirnov (1972), A.M. Mandelstam (1966, 1975), and N.G. Gorbunova (1981) allows us to assess the classification methods and identify typological features. The most detailed typology of Fergana undercuts is provided in the work of N.G. Gorbunova, who distinguishes 10 types depending on which wall of the grave the undercut is made, the presence of a step, and the nature of the niche's placement. Based on orientation, she identifies 20 subtypes (see Fig. 1). In her table, the undercuts are oriented only meridionally and latitudinally. It is unclear how in a narrow undercut, dug into the northern wall of a grave oriented in the latitudinal direction (type I), the skeletons could lie with their heads not to the SW, NW, NE, and SE. Such orientation is only possible if the grave is oriented diagonally. If we refer to the Chorku I burial ground mentioned by N.G. Gorbunova, it is indeed oriented diagonally. The possibility of the position of skeletons in meridional undercuts with heads to the SW (types V and VII) is also excluded.
The analysis of previous works allows us to conclude that the typology of undercuts can be based on three features: the orientation of the grave, the location of the niche in the wall of the grave, and the orientation of the skeleton. Graves are generally oriented meridionally (N-S), latitudinally (E-W), and diagonally (NW-SE, NE-SW). Undercuts are located on both sides of the entrance pit, and therefore the maximum possible number of types is 8, and taking into account orientation, which is polar in each case, - 16 (see Fig. 1). As is known, there are a total of 32 compass orientations. However, in archaeological practice, usually only half are used, and often even less.
In addition to those indicated in Fig. 1, types with more complex structures can be distinguished, for example, when there are niches on both sides in one grave, etc. The presence of a step and the nature of the placement are of secondary importance, as the number of graves with such features is quite limited. In Fig. 1, I present a refined classification of undercut graves, and not all possible varieties, as we see, are represented in the available materials. Out of the 16 maximum possible, only 12 have been identified.
The development of a detailed classification of undercuts is of relative significance for Fergana, as most such burials are concentrated in one local group - in the valleys of Laylak, Isfara, and Sokh. Outside this area, only isolated graves with undercuts have been found. The Kok-Tash Vadilsky, as a monument of a later time, should be excluded from consideration altogether. Given this, it can be considered that a detailed classification of undercuts is significant for refining analysis only within one group of monuments, for micro-zoning, as well as for comparative studies of Fergana monuments with similar burial grounds in other regions.
The situation with the classification of catacomb graves is significantly more complex. In the works of K.F. Smirnov (1972), V.S. Olkhovsky (1977), and N.G. Gorbunova (1981), several differing approaches to the classification of catacombs are presented (see Fig. 2). N.G. Gorbunova considers the following features: 1) the location of the catacomb relative to the dromos, 2) the length of the dromos, 3) the orientation of the dromos and at which end the catacomb is located, 4) the presence or absence of a step, 5) the nature of the entrance and its placement, 6) the orientation of the buried. A total of 12 types have been identified (see Fig. 2).
It should be noted that not all features have equal significance, for example, the nature of the entrance's placement. Thus, type IV with eastern orientation of the skeleton can be considered as a variant of type II, since they differ only in the placement of the entrance. The same should be said about types VII and VI. Type V is incorrectly designated, as in the Kalantar-khona burial ground, the dromos is extended along the line N-S and NW-SE with a chamber at the northern end (Litvinsky, 1972, p. 32). Therefore, the dromos is located diagonally, and the location of the catacomb determines the orientation of the buried. The number of types should therefore be reduced.
Just like for undercut graves, one can speak of meridional, latitudinal, and diagonal placement of the dromos. Considering the presence of catacombs at both ends of the dromos, a maximum of 8 varieties can be distinguished, although not all of them are represented in Fergana.
Kurgan burial mounds of the Fergana "nomads"
