During the trip, Mannerheim attempted to learn Chinese and Kyrgyz. The ability of this man to document the dialects of little-known peoples is remarkable. For example, in 1911, he published a substantial article based on notes about two Turkic-Mongolian peoples. It contains numerous examples of the vocabulary used by the local inhabitants. As a result of the publication of this work, the researcher is mentioned in the history of the study of Alay as one of the pioneers in this field. In
In the extensive diary of the baron, we encounter numerous admiring reviews of the majestic landscapes of the Tian Shan, Alai, and Himalayas. Whenever possible, he would always set off to hunt mountain goats, antelopes, and birds to supplement his monotonous and meager diet - his notebook contains the names of several recommended English guides for hunting wild animals. Since the official reason for Mannerheim's expedition was ethnographic research (and not military interests), he sent
Paths of outstanding politicians from different countries often intersect, each playing a key role in the fate of their state. Such meetings, especially when accompanied by fascinating stories, usually do not go unnoticed and leave a significant mark in the memory of descendants. Such a case occurred in the early 20th century in southern Kyrgyzstan. The military traveler, scout, Colonel of the General Staff of the Russian army, and descendant of Swedish aristocrats, Baron von Mannerheim, was
The ideas and sentiments of the rebels found sympathizers among the Kyrgyz nomads, as evidenced by the relevant testimony provided by contemporary researcher B. Babadzhanov. According to him, one of the close associates of the ishan, Fozil-bik, reported to Dukchi at the end of 1895 - the beginning of 1896 that the Kyrgyz from Eastern Fergana, residents of the village of Ketmon-tipa in Kugart, dissatisfied with the seizure of pastures and lands by Russian settlers, decided at one of their
Much about the appearance of Dukchi and his charisma is conveyed by the so-called legend of the fallen minaret, which was quite popular during the life of the ishan and later recounted in one of his biographies. This concerns the collapsed minaret, built in 1890. A few years later, due to the increasing number of worshippers in the mosque and murids, there arose a need to reconstruct the mosque. The craftsmen decided to dismantle the old minaret made of raw brick and erect a new one from burnt
The uprising was led by a certain Magomed Ali Khalif Muhammad-Sabir Ogly - the ishan from the village of Min-Tyube. The nickname Dukchi, under which he entered history, suggests a probable profession of this person. To fully reveal and objectively assess the reasons for the Andijan uprising of 1898, it is necessary to investigate the personality of the immediate leader. To determine whether the Andijan uprising can be interpreted as a religious Sufi, anti-colonial, or national liberation
The unpredictable and capricious nature for which Kurmandzhan Datka was known astonishingly combined with the sober calculation and wisdom of a far-sighted strategist. This is evidenced by a fact from the biography of the Alai queen, when her warning once saved tens of thousands of her tribesmen from certain death. This refers to an act that prevented many Alai people from participating in the infamous Andijan uprising of 1898. As is known, this mass unrest of separatists engulfed a
According to legends, Kurmandzhan Datka and Shabdan-Baatyr often showed mercy towards the poor and weak, providing them with material assistance. They were not characterized by a thirst for power, cruelty, greed, or a desire for enrichment. They amazed their contemporaries with their insight, flexibility, and consistent implementation of their set goals. In the context of the colonial policies of the Tsarist regime, they tried to preserve the integrity and nominal independence of their fellow
As is known, after the abolition of the Kokand Khanate, Kurmanjan Datka, along with her sons, unwilling to submit to the imperial government, took a desperate step—an unequal struggle against the imperial troops. In this regard, during the final stage of the conquest of the khanate, the Governor-General of Turkestan, K. D. Kaufman, wrote that "never before in Central Asia had the Russians experienced such a long and stubborn struggle. For the first time, we encountered an energetic
The history of a country is a delicate matter. Here, a careless word is enough to sow misunderstanding and discord. For example, an article about the Kyrgyz national hero Shabdan-baatyr, recently published in the newspaper "Slovo Kyrgyzstana," offends the feelings of those who cherish the memory of this man. In an interview published on April 15, 2011, in the newspaper "Slovo Kyrgyzstana," the great-great-grandson of Kurmandjan datka, Yu. M. Myrzapayazov, allowed himself to
The clan leaders of many southern Kyrgyz tribes, not connected with the court clique, began to contemplate a general uprising capable of overthrowing Khudoyar. However, they needed a leader with a loud name, necessarily from the ruling Ming dynasty - this was a long-standing tradition. When the true heir to the throne - Pulat-bek, who was leading a miserable existence as a student at a madrasa, refused this mission, a substitute was found, the very same mullah Iskhak Hasan-ulu. In the spring
Who was this impostor, hiding behind what seemed to be a noble cause under the name of the heir to the Kokand throne? It is known that moldo Iskhak Hasan-ulu, which was the real name of this hero, was born into the family of a Mardaris (spiritual leader) from Margilan around 1844. After finishing rural school, he studied for some time at a madrasah. In 1867, against his father's will, he dropped out of school and settled among his tribesmen from the Boston clan. He roamed a lot with the
The choice of Kurmandzhan Datka, who accepted Russian citizenship, predetermined, as is known, the further historical path of the southern Kyrgyz. However, another scenario was also possible, embodied in the fate of the impostor Pulat-Khan and the rebellious son of the Alay queen, Abdullabek. The stories of their fates are both interesting and instructive... It is known what the fate of the Alay people would have been had they followed not the advice of their wise matriarch but the calls of
When examining the documents regarding the waqf of the Alymbek madrasa, it is hard not to agree that the founders of such property were not only sedentary agriculturalists but also nomadic feudal lords. The representatives of the poor had a completely different attitude towards this form of land ownership. They viewed waqf as a tool of cruel exploitation. This traditional attitude was reflected in the preservation of certain rituals.
Viability of Waqf Institutions As the volost manager and mutawalli of the Alymbek Datka madrasa, Hasanbek had numerous opportunities for various abuses, which he did not hesitate to exploit. The villagers who cultivated the waqf land until 1898 (according to other sources, until 1894) paid rent to the waqf institution. As a result, by the end of the 19th century, even the biased imperial court initiated a legal case against the abuses of volost manager Hasanbek based on complaints from the
Attempts to Circumvent Legislation on the Expansion of Waqf The conversion of real estate into waqf, as noted above, served as a guarantee of the inviolability of property from encroachments by khans and other feudal lords. This inviolability extended to waqf property in the early years after the annexation of Fergana to Russia. A sufficient illustration of this is the following fact. The land in the Bash-Bulak area, which was owned by Abdullabek as a private owner, where peasants lived with
Certificates of Inoyat-name As seen from the land tax survey journal of the Fergana region for 1905 and the interrogation protocol from 1907, mutawaliya Hasan-bek (brother of Abdullabek) stated that each plot consisted of about seven tanaps of urban land. There were 161 trading shops on them. In the same year, 1875, Khudoyar-khan issued a special document freeing the mentioned lands, as well as the donated trading shops, from taxes. Abdullabek was issued the following exonerating Khan's
Waqf Documents Undoubtedly, the waqf madrasa of Alymbek is one of the largest agricultural estates of the feudal lord, but not the only one. The fact that Alymbek had, in addition to the waqf property, other plots of land in the same Fergana can be inferred from the repeatedly encountered mentions in waqf documents (waqf-nama) and purchase deeds (vasikas) regarding Alymbek's land parcels bordering other properties.
Mutawalli of the Waqf Thus, from the mentioned documents, it is clear that Alimbek, having constructed the main canal, distributed land in small plots (in "cheks") to the population with the condition of fulfilling tax obligations in favor of the waqf. Apparently, initially only the household, or in modern terms, the homestead plot of two tanaps was exempt from taxes in the cheking economy. It can be assumed that these tax-exempt plots from each household were not merely a form of
Kyrgyz Vakf The so-called Kyrgyz vakf of the 19th century is not an exceptional phenomenon, although it is quite rare and has barely taken shape. Several types of such vakf are known. All of them are not characteristic of nomadic pastoralism, as they are exclusively related to agriculture. Having acquired such an uncharacteristic form of property for nomads, Alymbek and his heirs did not limit themselves to registering just one land parcel as a vakf. The Fergana regional administration
Waqf Rights of the Madrasah "Alymbek-chek" According to archival documents, the madrasah was built from fired bricks and was distinguished by remarkable durability. It consisted of the following elements typical of similar architectural structures - a darshana, khanaka, 28 cells where three mudarris and from 80 to 100 student mullahs lived.
Alymbek's Madrasah The city of Osh in the 19th century, which we detailed in the previous chapter, has a direct connection to the story of the main heroine of our book, Kurmandzhan, for a very simple reason. This ancient city was viewed by the Alay tribal leaders as their stronghold in the Fergana Valley. Many of them owned lands, houses, and trading shops here. They built mosques and madrasahs. Such landowners were often granted a special form of property by the rulers - waqf. This
B. L. Grombchevsky (1856-1926) Here is another figure, Bronislav Ludwigovich Grombchevsky (1856-1926), a descendant of the Polish nobility who faithfully served Russia. He was not only a combat officer who participated in the Alai campaign of 1876. Since 1880, he served in the so-called military-national administration in the Margelan district. In addition, he was a prominent researcher of Pamir, Tian Shan, and the countries of Central Asia. He was a recipient of the silver and gold medals of
Vasily Nikolaevich Zaitsev To be fair, it should be noted that among the first officials in the district-city administration were also some energetic administrators, widely knowledgeable, with diverse interests, such as Russian officers M.E. Ionov, B.L. Grombchevsky, and V.N. Zaitsev. To a reasonable extent and within their capabilities, they showed concern for the improvement of the city, especially its new part. And what is extremely important, they worked to maintain a stable situation in
Police Administration in the City At the end of the 19th century, the district authorities consisted of the district chief, who had broad powers over the urban and rural population, his assistant-secretary, a clerk, and the so-called written translator. However, judging by documents from the early 20th century, the city economic committee, composed of wealthy townspeople (an advisory and powerless body), was still considered a passive appendage to the district chief, serving as a facade for
Military-Police Administration As we can see, the ancient city at the beginning of Russian rule represented a Gordian knot of everyday and other problems. This, of course, highlighted the necessity for competent and effective governance. Let us take a closer look at its system. The Fergana Region, established on February 19, 1876, after the liquidation of the Kokand Khanate, was part of the Turkestan General Governorship and housed a dense network of military units within its territory. I
Construction of the "new" city The location for the construction of the "new" city, which occupied an area of 95 desyatins, was chosen by the imperial authorities a bit south of the "old" Osh, upstream along the Ak-Buura River. In its layout, the new city part, where the streets were laid out in a checkerboard pattern and intersected at right angles, favorably distinguished itself from "native" Osh and other ancient Central Asian cities and settlements
Growth of the City in the Early 20th Century Little expanding in the pre-war years due to its surroundings, Osh did not rise in height either, except for the increasing number of minarets by 1917 at the mosques. The spatial growth of the city, more precisely its residential part, is associated with the construction of new single-story buildings in the upper part of the city. The following data provides an idea of the growth of residential construction: at the end of the 1870s, there were about
Description of Osh by Foreigners Brief but curious descriptions of Osh, its old and new urban areas, were left by Russian and foreign travelers. For example, Guillaume Capu, a participant in the French-Kyrgyz expedition to Pamir in the 1880s, noted: “From the height of the terrace of the district chief's house... we have a view of the city of Osh, resembling a chaotic cluster of yellow adobe houses, huddled among tall poplars, like cobblestones on a large construction site. At its edge
M.E. Ionov with family Construction of the New Part of the City In 1872, the source of headaches for Russian diplomacy, the Kokand Khanate, ceased to exist. On its territory, the Fergana region of the Turkestan General Governorship was formed. The triumph of M.D. Skobeleva in southern Kyrgyzstan did not go unnoticed by the local residents. Having relatively quickly recovered from the shocks of war, they soon felt many advantages of being subjects of a vast empire, living on its outskirts, but
The Bukhara Invasion of Fergana The successful conquest of Kyrgyzstan's territory by the Khans of Kokand was facilitated by inter-clan and tribal feuds among Kyrgyz feudal lords, who refused to unite even in the face of a common enemy. Thus, in late summer 1821, Omar Khan sent Beknazar-biy - his loyal Kyrgyz feudal lord, who led the clan of Kutluk-Seyid and was simultaneously the hakim of the city of Kasana - to subjugate the Kyrgyz of the Sarybagysh clan, who were nomadic near the city
Events 200 Years Ago Let’s return to the events of 200 years ago. What was Osh primarily for the formidable rulers of Fergana at that time? A coveted point, the owner of which gained influence over a vast region - an important section of the Great Silk Road.
Beacon of Faith Thus, Osh, once a city of "infidels" - Zoroastrians and followers of local shamanic cults - gradually became a holy city for Muslims. It took centuries for new Islamic legends, tales, and myths to replace the pagan legends and rituals practiced on the slopes of the mountain. These stories recounted the life of Adam, as well as the assembly of Muslim prophets, such as Jibril, Muhammad, Sulayman, Asaf ibn Burhiya, and many others. This continued until the advent of
"The Business Card" of the City of Osh When narrating the life of the Alaï queen, one cannot overlook the "pearl" of the Kokand Khanate - Osh. This city is closely connected to the matriarch, especially during the years of her brilliant political career. If a theater, as they say, begins with a coat rack, then it is best to start telling about the attractions of the "southern capital" with Sulaiman-Too. This mountain has always been a symbol of the ancient city.
The Liquidation of the Kokand Khanate In the spring of 1873-1874, uprisings repeatedly broke out in the Kokand Khanate, but the khan managed to cope with them somehow. The rebels often sought help from the Russian authorities but always received a refusal. In the spring of 1875, even the Kokand nobility rose against Khudoyar: the conspiracy was led by the son of the once all-powerful regent Muslimqul, Abdurrahman Avtobachi, the mullah Issa-Auliye, and the khan's brother, the ruler of
The Newly Minted Ruler of Kokand In 1862, there was a struggle for khan power in Kokand. Khudoyar emerged victorious. It is worth mentioning the circumstances under which this remarkable politician came to power. It is known that he ascended to the throne with the support of his regent, the Kipchak Muslimkul. The latter killed Murad Khan, who ruled in Kokand for only 11 days. At the time of his ascension, Khudoyar was only 16 years old. According to the biography of the newly minted ruler of
The Death of Alymbek As is known, before the Alay Queen, no woman in Turkestan had been honored with the title of Datka. But let us recall the circumstances under which Kurmandzhan became the head of her clan. After losing her husband, she was forced to take the reins of power in Aala. So, Alymbek Datka died in the summer of 1862 during yet another palace coup. Let us recall the story of this hero's demise. In 1847, one of the representatives and heirs of the former theocratic rulers of
The Grandeur and Dignity of Women-Mothers As mentioned above, Sunni Islam, which spread among the Kyrgyz, was subsequently adapted to local customs and rituals. In turn, this contributed to the centralization and structuring of pagan cults and beliefs at a higher level, incorporating them as subordinate elements into the overall social ideology. Despite the tenets of Islamic religious doctrine and the condemnation by Muslim mullahs, the Kyrgyz retained many elements of paganism within the
Incorporation into Islamic Civilization From the perspective of formal adherence to Islamic customs, the Kyrgyz did not leave the best impression on many Russian travelers. For example, Chokan Valikhanov wrote in his works: “All the wild stone Kyrgyz profess the Muslim religion or, rather, call themselves Muslims, not knowing either the dogmas of faith or its requirements. All their rituals and beliefs still retain a complete shade of shamanism, which is held in great esteem in this horde, and
The Influence of Kokand Colonization on the Kyrgyz The Kokandis encouraged the Kyrgyz to settle in specific locations, forming sedentary or semi-sedentary kystaks. The Kyrgyz came under the constant attention and control of khan's officials, and their wintering habits tied them to certain places; in the event of uprisings or revolts, the Kyrgyz found themselves surrounded by Kokand forces. Animal husbandry was also promoted by the Kokandis, as the army needed cavalry, and the settled
Land Conflicts Conflicts over land frequently occurred between the nomadic Kyrgyz and the settled population of Fergana. The quantitative growth of the settled population and the aspirations of the landowning nobility required the expansion of crops and the increase of arable land, which could only happen at the expense of the lands of the nomadic population, which itself began to transition to agriculture intensively from the mid-19th century. Land conflicts intertwined with the political
Kyrgyz Ayil - an Obstacle on the Path of the Islamization of the People. As historical experience shows, the most freedom-loving peoples tend to fiercely and consistently preserve their national cultural traditions. This is done to avoid assimilation with other ethnic groups, especially in critical moments when the survival of the ethnic group as such is at stake. The Kyrgyz are no exception to this rule. It was the Kyrgyz ayil, with its age-old foundations and customs, that was the greatest
LIFE AND BELIEFS OF THE KYRGYZ DURING THE TIME OF KURMANDZHAN DATKA And still, how did the star of Kurmandzhan Datka rise in the Islamic world, in an era when a woman could not even dream of the glory of a politician and statesman? Finding an answer to this question is hardly possible without considering the unique national characteristics that patriarchal Muslim traditions acquired on Kyrgyz soil. Let’s start with an important point. The Kyrgyz became Muslims not in a short period of time,
The Uncontested Ruler Aalaya In the early 1860s, when Mullah Alymkul was still the ruler of Osh, his main rival was Alymbek, who managed the affairs of the Kyrgyz of Aalaya. Alymkul, having become regent for the underage Sultan-Seid, destroyed the old khan's palace in the center of Kokand and built another one—already outside the city limits. Relying on the nomadic elements of the Kyrgyz and Kipchaks in his rule, Alymkul was not without reason afraid of being surrounded by the more
The Removal of Malla-Khan by Alymbek Being a perceptive researcher, Duygamel, who closely observed the situation within the Kyrgyz tribes, understood that Alymbek, who openly opposed the Kokand khan, would attempt to become an independent ruler of Tian Shan and would therefore inevitably turn to the Russians. This intention, apparently, was present in Alymbek. Duygamel instructed the head of the Alatav district, G.A. Kolpakovsky, to treat Alymbek favorably if he attempted to establish
RISE AND FALL OF ALYMBEK Such was the state of affairs at the time of the rise of Kurmandzhan's husband, Alymbek, who was one of the major Kyrgyz feudal lords influencing the politics of the Kokand khans. He first appeared on the political scene in 1845 during the uprising of the Alai Kyrgyz. It was only thanks to the resourcefulness and decisiveness of his wife, the later famous Ailai Queen Kurmandzhan, that he was saved from the usurper Musulmanqul, who suppressed the uprising. In 1847,
Under the Yoke of Kokand The conquest of the northern part of the Kyrgyz settlement area by the Kokand khans changed the political situation in Central Asia. Its consequences for the Kyrgyz people were not unambiguous. Some representatives of the local nobility leaned towards cooperation, while others chose to fight against the conquerors. The situation for the common people, however, worsened drastically. They found themselves under the heavy burden of double oppression: from the Kokand
Kyrgyz of Fergana Together with Uzbeks Created the Kokand Khanate Every person, no matter how great or insignificant they may be, carries the mark of their era. This also applies to those individuals who can change the course of time themselves, such as the tribal leader Alai Kurmandzhan Datka. The drama of the end of the Kokand Khanate uniquely shaped the personality of the Alai queen. Therefore, our story about her would be incomplete if we do not mention the life of the Kyrgyz within this
