The status of women in family relationships changed depending on age, the number of children born, authority among related families, etc. The principles of patriarchal-feudal morality regarding married women can be summarized as follows: a woman must obey her husband, not engage in disputes with him; she must respect and honor all of her husband's relatives, and she is obliged to strictly adhere to behavioral norms within the family and among relatives; in the morning, she should rise
In the men's Kyrgyz costume, wearing a belt is considered mandatory. For the past hundred years, belts have been made using a kushak, a wide leather (or velvet) belt adorned with silver buckles and scarves. The most archaic type is considered to be the kushak (boto kur, bel kur) made from a strip of home-produced fabric 1.5 to 2 meters long and 30 to 35 cm wide. Older men wore a white kushak, middle-aged men wore a darker color, and young men wore red. Boys began to wear the kushak at the
The social composition of families was directly dependent on the economic specifics of the family and had regional differences. In the 19th to early 20th centuries, nomadic traditions, as well as the livestock-oriented economy, were better preserved in mountainous areas, primarily in the central part of the Tien Shan and Pamir-Alai. To meet the need for agricultural products, part of the family or hired related families would stay in winter pastures, where they grew barley, millet, etc. In the
Among the herders in northern Kyrgyzstan, felt clothing in the form of a kementai cloak was common. In the south, we noted only a few centers of its distribution in the past. For example, in the Soviet district, the elders from the Adigine group wore such clothing made from dark felt, but covered on top with fabric produced at home. According to the stories of elder Umurzaly Toktonazarov (from the village of Uulu in the Aravan district), "kementai" was sewn in both white and dark
The predominant type of family at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century was the nuclear family, which consisted of direct relatives - parents and children. The size of such families varied in different regions where the Kyrgyz lived. For instance, in the Pishpek district in 1912-1913, the average family size was 5.6 people of both sexes (Materials... 1913. p. 284), in the Namangan district - 5.5 (Materials... 1913. p. 90), in the Andijan district - 5.9 (Materials... 1913. p.
The clothing that protects against the cold in winter and at high altitudes in the mountains for all Kyrgyz people, as well as for many peoples of Central and Middle Asia, is the fur coat of the type known as nagolny tulup (ton, postun). It is a typical male garment. Boys began to be dressed in sheepskin coats from about the age of three. In the past, the tulup was an essential attribute of every nomad living year-round in a yurt. “What our stoves and the walls of our houses provide, a Kyrgyz
The family is the most important institution in the system of social relations in Kyrgyz society. Its history dates back centuries. The roots of many family traditions can be found in the early forms of social relations that existed among the ethnic communities that later became part of the Kyrgyz people. The family has gone through several stages, each characterized by forms of family and family relations corresponding to the existing social relations. In the early stages, the large
The glasnost of the perestroika period opened new opportunities for the study and popularization of historical and cultural heritage. It was during this period that the dissemination of sanjyr received a new impetus. Starting from district and regional periodicals and ending with popular magazines of the republic such as "Ala-Too," "Kyrgyzstan Madeniyaty," and others, sanjyr began to be published, allowing a wide range of readers to become acquainted with them. In 1990, a
The men's outerwear known as a robe is characterized by great diversity. In the past, it was considered improper to leave the house without it. During cold weather, men wore robes such as chapans, chepkens (chekmen), tons (postuns), and ichiks. Nowadays, "chapan" and "ton" continue to be worn. All of them are fastened on the right side, which is typical for the clothing of ancient Turkic nomads. The outerwear called "chapan" is made with cotton (or wool) and
In the mid-19th century, some influential manaps, realizing the significance of the sanjyr, began to record its content on paper. However, their first handwritten versions did not gain widespread distribution. Such records were essentially the genealogy of a specific ruler, manap, or biy, and in rare cases, of a clan. B. Soltonoev recalls a sanjyr record that has not survived to our time, made at the behest of the supreme manap of the Kara-Kyrgyz, Ormon-khan. The manap invited a literate
Men's trousers were made from various materials. They used calico, home-produced fabrics, sheep and goat skins, suede, and factory-made fabrics (wool, velvet, dense cotton). The cut depended on the material. Trousers of all shapes were closed, and they were tightened with a woolen cord called "gashnik" ("ычкыр"), which was threaded through a fold and tied in front. The ends of the gashnik in the traditional costume of young men were decorated with embroidery made of
The main items of men's undergarments in the 19th century among the Kyrgyz were the open shirt and trousers. The open shirt — jegde (Fig. 133, a) was usually made from white calico or mat. Its cut was tunic-like. Slightly flared wedges were sewn onto the side edges. The length of the shirt was below the knees, and the sleeves covered the wrists. It was customary to sew in gussets (keshtak). The open collar was trimmed with a band that narrowed at the chest and was fastened with cords or
The sanjyra, as a historical source, consists of a structure made up of legendary and several historical layers. The legendary part mainly encompasses tales about the forty maidens, which form the basis of ancient historical tradition. Stories about Khan Ughuz and Turk Ata, as well as the name of the famous medieval Sufi Sheikh Mansur al-Hallaj, likely entered the sanjyra under the influence of book culture and the activities of Muslim missionaries. Among the legendary ancestors, the last
Among the ready-made items purchased by Kyrgyz people, in addition to light robes, were quilted chapans made by Uzbeks and fur coats (ichik). Kyrgyz people also bought men's shirts, tubeteikas, and leather shoes. Uzbek waist scarves (cotton and silk, with and without embroidery) became widely popular, as well as large women's scarves that came to the market from Eastern Turkestan and Bukhara. Various silver jewelry and corals, mother-of-pearl, precious stones, and pearls brought from
The analysis shows the continuity of historical and genealogical information in the sanjyra. A stable genealogical trace is represented by the legend of Dolon-biy and his descendants. In various versions of the sanjyra, he appears as the primordial ancestor of the Kyrgyz of the right ("on kanat") and left wings ("sol kanat"). In different versions, he is the progenitor of all major branches ("on kanat", "sol kanat", "ichkilik") of the
The clothing of the southern Kyrgyz has not received special attention in literature. There are only fragmentary pieces of information, but they are characterized by an emphasis on national features and the uniqueness of Kyrgyz clothing. More detailed information can be found in the aforementioned works of V. I. Kushelevsky and N. S. Lykoshin. Valuable sources for studying the clothing of southern Kyrgyz people include ethnographic collections stored in the State Museum of Ethnography, the
The study of ethnogenetic information of nomadic tribes has been significantly contributed to by S. M. Abramzon and L. P. Potapov. They substantiated the historical-cultural and source-critical significance of oral genealogical traditions in the study of the ethnic and social organization of Turkic peoples. According to their conclusion, oral historical and genealogical information is indeed the people's historical knowledge, which they termed "folk ethnogeny." The scholars
The study of the sedentary dwellings of the southern Kyrgyz allows us to draw some conclusions. Settlements and estates among the southern Kyrgyz emerged at different times. The southwestern Kyrgyz (ichkilyaks) transitioned to sedentary living significantly earlier than the others. We were unable to obtain precise data on the timing of their transition to adobe dwellings, but by the mid-19th century, sedentary living already existed among the southern Kyrgyz. The presence of houses of the
In the sources, up until the 18th century, there is little information about the clan-tribal structure or genealogy of the Tian Shan Kyrgyz. However, some Persian-Tajik works from the 15th-16th centuries briefly mention legendary tribal unions: Otuuz-Uul and Kyrgyz, Ak-Uul ("the right wing") and Kuu-Uul ("the left wing") (Materials on History... 1973. P. 206, 207; RF IYAL NAN KR. Vol. 2. No. 5179), and this information aligns with genealogical traditions. The work of the
The third type is a manor without a yard and fence, although the area in front of the house is referred to as a yard. Economic buildings are located in close proximity to the house in various configurations. The architecture of the houses is predominantly characterized by a high gabled roof of the Russian type. Such manors are concentrated in the eastern part of the region — in the Aksai, Soviet, Uzgen, and partly in the Nookat districts. Manors without a yard but with a house of the Fergana
Sanjiра is an oral chronicle that reflects the genealogical branches of individual clans, tribes, and the nation as a whole, as well as historical events of past eras. As one of the important ideological institutions in the absence of a unified state administration, sanjira, along with customary law (adat, park), was related to the regulation of social relationships in society. In terms of structure and content, they encompassed all tribes, clans, and ethnic groups that formed the modern
Gates of a closed-type estate. Batken district. The second type of estate is the closed-type estate. It fully embodies the traditions of medieval architecture. It has a rectangular shape, surrounded by a high adobe wall ("duval"), and externally resembles a feudal fortress. Round towers are constructed at the corners and sometimes at the entrance, and the wall features protrusions in the form of battlements. There is usually only one entrance to the estate, typically through high
In higher hierarchical clan-tribal communities, blood relations, economic, and territorial ties weakened. In the tribe, political interests played a primary role, and the tribal organization regulated the system of military and power relations. Conflicts and armed confrontations occurred between tribes, as well as raids aimed at cattle theft. However, when a serious threat arose to the entire people, the scattered tribes could concentrate their joint efforts to repel the enemy. A unifying
In the early 20th century, Kyrgyz people also built houses similar to the described type, but without the stepped arched ceiling. Their construction is likely genetically linked to the design of Pamir-type houses. This is primarily evidenced by the overlap in their distribution areas. Such houses are characterized by the presence of columns that support the roof, a wooden ceiling, and a beam laid across the floor, dividing the room into two unequal parts. In the smaller part, which constitutes
In the ethnic composition of the Kyrgyz, tribes such as kurkureo, kuren, kalcha, keldike, kalmak, sart-kammak, kalmak-kyrgyz, chayu kazak, and others were represented, which, structurally, were not components of the aforementioned three branches. Historical information and genealogical traditions indicate that they belong to components of mixed or foreign origin (Abramzon, 1971. P. 26-28; 1960. P. 87-92; Alymbaeva, 1966. P. 200-212). Large tribes within the right and left wings, as well as the
The houses-manors are characterized by their close proximity to each other. Sometimes they adjoin one another, and from above, they appear as a continuous cover of roofs without chimneys. G. V. Pokrovsky and N. I. Stogov wrote about the layout of the houses-manors and the arrangement of domestic furnishings within them.
Based on materials collected by S. M. Abramzon, R. Ya. Vinnikov, and A. Sydykov (Abramzon, 1960, pp. 3-136; 137-181; Vinnikov, 1957, pp. 71-75; Sydykov, 1992, pp. 111-156), we can judge the settlement of certain tribes. In the late 19th - early 20th centuries, the main mass of the Sarybagysh tribe inhabited the eastern part of the Chui Valley, the territories of Chon-Kemin and Kichi-Kemin, the northern and western parts of Lake Issyk-Kul, the Kochkor Valley, and the areas in the valleys of the
In the Osh region, we identify four main types of homesteads. We will first focus on the most ancient type, known as the Pamir type. Its distinctive feature is the placement of the house and the adjacent outbuildings under one roof. There is no courtyard. There is only one entrance to the homestead, through which people and livestock pass. The house is made of adobe with high walls (up to 3—3.2 m). The roof is always flat, without eaves, and, as mentioned above, is supported by massive pillars
The Presence of Numerous Clans and Tribes Among the Kyrgyz People Life for a Kyrgyz outside the close ties with their circle of close and distant relatives was practically impossible. Every person sought to maintain these connections, strengthen them, and restore them if they were broken, with genealogical information playing an important role (Abramzon, 1960, p. 7), and kinship relations could be both real and fictitious. The presence of numerous clans and tribes did not hinder the formation
Two Types of "Tandyr" In southern Kyrgyzstan, there are two types of "tandyr." For one, the base is purchased ready-made from Uzbeks, while for the other, everything is made on-site. This is done by women. The base of the "tandyr" acquired from Uzbeks is a large pot in the shape of a "khuma" without a bottom. It is placed sideways on a platform, a "bottom" is laid inside, and it is coated around with clay to give it a rounded appearance. The
Bureaucratic Apparatus of Management among Southern Kyrgyz Tribes The social and property differentiation among the Kyrgyz deepened during the Kokand rule and after their incorporation into the Russian Empire, which was associated with an increase in tax burdens. The number of horse-less and livestock-less families sharply increased, social support among relatives turned into an open form of exploitation, and clan solidarity began to lose its former significance and acquire distorted forms.
Outbuildings Outbuildings in southern Kyrgyzstan are quite uniform, but there are many variations in their placement relative to the house. Their construction in the past was determined by the nature and size of the household. In the overwhelming majority of old estates, stables (atkana, agyl) were mandatory. For these purposes, flat-roofed sheds (bastyrma) were also used. The sheds were supported on beams, one end resting on the fence (duval) and the other on posts buried in the ground 2-3
Namys. The management system in traditional Kyrgyz society was based on the principles of solidarity, mutual assistance, mutual support (patronage, clan, tribal), and collective responsibility. At the core of this system was the idea of the honor of the clan or tribe - namys, for which each individual was expected to give their all. In Soviet historiography, such a system was considered a hidden form of exploitation by the wealthy part of the population over their kin; in reality, the
The Decoration of Southern Kyrgyz Dwellings A prominent role in the decoration of the living room belongs to the carpets laid on the floor. They are especially used to adorn the part of the floor that is closer to the wall where the bedding is stacked, as this place is traditionally considered the most honorable, just like in a yurt, and continues to be called "tor." Cleanliness is always maintained here; stepping in with outdoor shoes is not allowed. In homes, there are also items
Oaths among the Kyrgyz Oaths were an important element of relationships at the intertribal level, primarily concerning military and political issues, and they remained in effect until the agreed goal was achieved. The agreement, which had an intertribal character, was sealed with blood; for this purpose, a horse of a specific color, usually a light gray ak boz am, was slaughtered, and the sabers were sprinkled with the blood of the slain horse while the formula was pronounced: “Kimde kim ushul
Wall Niches Wall niches are one of the characteristic features of the dwellings in Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, and the houses of Eastern Turkestan. They are also popular in Southern Kyrgyzstan, but are most typical, as noted above, for flat-roofed Ferghana-type houses. Niches add a special style to the room's interior and, in the absence of furniture, serve as a convenient introduction. They replace cabinets, help keep household items organized, and give the dwelling a unique charm.
Kyrgyz Councils Councils were important institutions of governance for the tribes and clans. Those held at the tribal level were called chon jyiyn, chon top, meaning big council. Decisions were made on a collegial basis, where each participant was required to express their opinion, and the final decision belonged to the supreme biy (manap) of the tribe. During warm weather, councils were held outdoors, in elevated places dёbё (or dёbёge chyguu, which meant to consult). Typically, the beginning
Teshik and Eshik In the homes of Southern Kyrgyzstan, it is not difficult to trace the evolution of the light source. All its variations are represented. In the high walls of Pamir-type houses built in the last century, there were no window openings; light entered the room through a smoke hole in the ceiling and the entrance door. Modern houses, on the other hand, are built with large windows, double frames, sills, and carved shutters. In Pamir-type houses, light openings measuring about 20x20
Elders - Real Power in Kyrgyz Society Before joining Russia, there existed the institution of kurultai. It was convened rarely and only to address momentous issues. A kurultai could be convened by a single tribe independently or by a group of tribes with prior agreement. For instance, in 1825, a kurultai of the Bugyn Kyrgyz was convened in the Zhyrgalan area on the Tyup River (Issyk-Kul), where the question of the Bugyn tribe accepting Russian citizenship was discussed; in 1842, a kurultai was
Stove-fireplace The stove-fireplace with a wide chimney that narrows towards the top has become widely used in Southern Kyrgyzstan. Therefore, the Kyrgyz call this stove moru (chimney). It is never closed. Its mass appearance, evidently, dates back to the late 19th century, as many houses of that time still used a home hearth and made smoke holes in the roofs. This is mentioned in some literary sources, and the same is recounted by the elders. The main purpose of the stove is the same as that
Tribal Institutions of Power The power system among all groups of Kyrgyz was similar and did not imply centralized governance. It was limited to the tribal level, led by the clan nobility, and governance was primarily based on unwritten adat rules. The relationships of dominance and subordination were built on traditional institutions. In the late 18th - first half of the 19th century, with the inclusion of the peripheral, Pamir-Alai, and Talas Kyrgyz into the orbit of the state policies of
Southern Kyrgyz Houses For a family consisting of several married couples, a different house plan is typical, taking the form of an elongated rectangle divided into separate living cells. Each living cell is a one-room (or two-room) space with a separate entrance. The number of such living spaces, arranged in a row, depends on the number of married sons or brothers of the head of the family. Such structures are widespread throughout the region. They are characterized by flat roofs. In houses
Kyrgyz Division into Tribes and Clans Despite the absence of a centralized state, the Kyrgyz had their own territory, an ethnic identity, and a cultural community. In the 18th to the first half of the 19th century, the system of power and governance institutions were based on tribal organization and patriarchal relations. The Kyrgyz were divided into tribes (uru) and clans (uruk), which clearly identified themselves with the common ethnonym "Kyrgyz." There is reliable historical
House with a high gable roof. Aksy District. Fergana and Mixed Types of Houses. While the spread of the first type of dwelling (Pamir type), according to the data we have, was limited, the second type (Fergana type) has been widely constructed in both variations throughout the southern part of the Osh region for a long time and has the broadest distribution among all the types of houses we have noted. The third, mixed type, starting from the late 19th century and especially in the early 20th
POWER SYSTEM AND MANAGEMENT INSTITUTIONS According to historical sources, the Kyrgyz people went through a series of stages of state-political development from the end of the 3rd - beginning of the 2nd century BC to the first half of the 19th century. This development ranged from the simplest political organization in the form of "ownership" to a centralized medieval empire in the 9th-10th centuries. In Southern Siberia and Eastern Turkestan, until the early 18th century, there were
The Influence of Other Peoples on the Craftsmanship of Kyrgyz The builders of Kyrgyz houses in the 19th century were masters from Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Uyghur, and Russian (since the end of the last century). In some areas, local Kyrgyz and those who came from Kashgar also built houses. Among our informants were Kyrgyz masters whose teachers were their fathers and even grandfathers. This fact may serve as indirect evidence that southern Kyrgyz began constructing settled dwellings a long time
Military-Police Institute and the Institute of Seniority The Military-Police Institute in ancient times was called "choro" or "kyrk choro" (forty heroes), later - "zhigitter" - "jigits", "jasak" - lieutenants, "atkaminer" - horsemen (late 19th - early 20th century). Initially, this institute was the foundation of a military-democratic structure, and later became the personal guard of khans and tribal leaders. In conditions of
Roofing of Houses The construction of the walls of the house is preceded by the laying of the foundation (pai duval). For this, a trench is dug 25–30 cm deep and about 60–80 cm wide. Pre-assembled boulders of various sizes are laid in it and covered with sand and fine gravel. In older houses, trenches were not made; the walls were placed directly on the ground or on stones laid in a row on the ground. Frame houses are more often built in the western regions of the area, using all the
